(Fig. 9) Photo of the 12th century Nán Sòng Cháo 南宋朝 (Southern Song Dynasty)(1127-1279)[44], woodblock print of the Gujin Hua Yi Quyu Zongyao Tu 古今華夷區域摠要圖 (Illustration of the Ancient and Present Territories of China and Foreign Countries) map (Cao Wanru, 1959).[45] The spatial rendering of the northern half of Tonkin Bay and associated coast line of northern Vietnam, per Gujin Hua Yi Quyu Zongyao Tu less accurate compared to the earlier Yu Ji Tu. The Yu Ji Tu correctly showing the coastline of Vietnam as arching towards the south where as the less accurate Gujin Hua Yi Quyu Zongyao Tu along with succeeding maps such as the ca. 1389, Da Ming Hun Yi Tu 大明混一圖 (Illustrated Copulation of the Great Ming)(Zhou, 2013) depicting the Vietnam coastline near the present day cities of Mon Kay to Hai Phong as traversing predominately east to west.[45]

      ^{[48] [49]}

(Fig. 13, upper left) Photo of the ca. 1389, Da Ming Hun Yi Tu 大明混一圖 (Illustrated Copulation of the Great Ming)(Zhou, 2013).[50] Note how the Indo China Peninsula[50a] is very compressed in latitude and expanded in longitude. The distortions increasing more severely from a point near the region of the map known today as the city of Hai Phong, Vietnam[50b] and recognizable as a sharp orthogonal shoreline near the maps bottom center, continuing onwards, towards the southern tip of Vietnam and what is today the Cà Mau Peninsula[50c], which per the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu, represents the southernmost point on the East Asian continent, yet aware that the tip of the Malay Peninsula is much closer to the equator. The coastline of Cambodia and eastern Thailand forming the upper half of the Gulf of Thailand, arching northwards on the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu much like the stretch of shoreline that spans the distant between the Mexican States of Sinaloa to Guerrero, Mexico, resulting in narrow inlet of water that resembles the Gulf of California.[50d] This narrow inlet of water representing the entire width of the Gulf of Thailand. The western side of the inlet, forming the eastern shores of the Malay Peninsula.[50e] The Malay Peninsula and greatly abbreviated in length on the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu, then forming the eastern shoreline of the Gulf of Martaban and Andaman Sea.[50f] The Gulf of Martaban separating modern day Thailand from Myanmar.[50g] The next and most western peninsula like formation illustrated on the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu and represented as a twin vertical structure divided by a wide river, indicating the Irrawaddy River delta.[50h] The dot present in the upper half of the peninsula placed body of water (lake) being the 4,981' ft (1,518 m) peak of Mount Popa. It is this land mass that the river delta resides on, the Tanintharyi Peninsula with the Bay of Bengal on the western shores of the split peninsula[50i] that is frequently miss understood today as representing the distant Arabian Peninsula and continent of Africa (xxxx, xxxx).[50j] The region encompassing the modern day city of Chittagong, Bangladesh on the Meghna River delta (discharge for the Brahmaputra and Ganges rivers)[50k] marking a western terminus area of the map and entry point into the Indian Sub Continent, a realm signified with the prevalence of Hindu and Sikh religions.[50l] The void region north and west of the Tanintharyi peninsula to include the tributaries of the Brahmaputra (west) and Irrawaddy (east) Rivers being the uncharted region of the Himalayan Mountain Range with the Tibetan Plateau being situated in the upper left, northwest corner of the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu map. (Fig. 14, upper right) Photo of the post Admiral Zheng He (1405-1433) expedition, ca. 1470 Honil Gangni Yeokdae Gukdo Ji Do 混一疆理歷代國都之圖 (Illustration of Included Lands and Regions of Historical Countries and Capitals)(xxxx, 2013) a copy of a Japanese map introduced to Korea in 1402 (xxxx, xxxx).[51] The very littoral, Da Ming Hun Yi Tu, as evident from the omission of a reasonably correct Sumatra and Java island, the content creasing just west of Bengal Bay (highly distorted China Sea, no Malay Peninsula) and region of the map frequently misunderstood today as representing Africa, bringing into question the entire claim that Admiral Zheng He actually sailed all the way to Africa. There being no known maritime map in China that represents extraterritorial lands and coastlines west and south of Bengal Bay prior to the ca. 1584 Yudi Shanhai Quantu 舆地山海全图 (Complete Map of Mountains and Sea Geography) by Matteo Ricci, also known as Li Madou 利瑪竇. The incorrect spatial rendering of Sumatra and Java being further misplaced, located south of Vietnam and not the Malay peninsula. Such errors and of a propagating nature, being a strong indication that the maritime regions in the South China Seas were extra territorial to what was understood as the boundaries of Chinese Ming Dynasty.(Fig. 15, below) Map of the Ming Cháo ca. xxxx (Hong Kong University, xxxx)[52] with various sub regions (provinces) indicated, such and Shandong, Hunan, Jiangsu, Fujian, Guangdong and others. The Great Wall at the eastern terminus, though shown to be reaching the Yalu River (xxxx, xxxx)[53] in fact, not the true political boundary separating China from the Korean Peninsula. Chinese political control of the northeast region ceasing prior to the Laotong (current day Liaoning Shang 辽宁省[54] (Liaoning Provence) and Jilin Shang 吉林省[55] (Jilin Provence) region southwest of central Manchuria. In addition, the Chinese, per this Ming Dynasty era map, did not have strong political control of the coastal region along the southern borders know as the Tonkin,(xxxx, xxxx)[56] though the Island of Hainan is indicated as being within Chinese domain. Note also, the complete absence of Taiwan and the Pescadores Islands, along with most all of the South China Sea as the most southern body of water represented in the Hong Kong University copy of the of Ming Cháo being Tonkin Bay.

     ^[57]

     Vietnam's Cà Mau Peninsula, a large portion of which representing the Mekong River delta or the Méigōng hé 湄公河 up stream,^[46l] per the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu being composed of a large detached land mass that was discrete from the greater peninsula region. This water passage and perhaps a natural canal for half the distance, being what may have been a former inland sea route that operated between the southwest Vietnamese city of Rạch Giá on the eastern shores of the Gulf of Thailand, to the southeast side of the peninsula and shoreline, leading to the South China Sea near the Vietnamese city of Bạc Liêu.^[46m]

     The two maps being void of a properly placed and rendered island of Sumatra, Java, Borneo and Philippine archipelago (Figs. 16, 17). It being possible that the rudimentary rendering of the island pair forming an archipelago in the southeast section of the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu and directly below what would be the Malay Peninsula (Strait of Malacca)^[46h] and southwest of the southern tip of Vietnam's Cà Mau Peninsula,^[46i] is an over simplified representation of Sumatra Island and the Sungai Kampar River along with the nearby island group composed of Pulau Bengkalis, Pulau Pedang, Pulau Tebingtinggi and Pulau Rangsang^[46j] represented as a single land mass.^[46k] The width of the Strait of Malacca in the vicinity of modern day city of Singapore, or essentially the latitude distance between the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula to the Island of Sumatra being rendered on the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu as being equivalent to the latitude distance between the Shāndōng Peninsula on the east coast on China to the opening of the Yangzì River or Cháng Jiāng 長江 near the city of modern day Shànghǎi. A cursory and contrived plotting that was perhaps and not out of the ordinary, the product of the cartographer's own desire for completeness, thus the lack of spatial accuracy. The grossly imprecise mass of islands having been drawn by word of mouth and non quantified information beyond simple days of travel shared by local mariners, as appose to the Chinese having actually sailed to these destinations, leading to greater cartographic accuracy.

     This same collection of islands Sumatra, Pulau Bengkalis, Pulau Pedang, Pulau Tebingtinggi and Pulau Rangsang being represented as a pair of islands on the Korean produced Honil Gangni Yeokdae Gukdo Ji Do the archipelago being place south of Vietnam's Cà Mau Peninsula with the Malay peninsula being completely omitted. Both the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu and Honil Gangni Yeokdae Gukdo Ji Do giving indications that the principle city for the ancient kingdom of Srivijaya on the island of Sumatra and a center for Buddhist teachings during the 8^th century, may not have been Palembang, South Sumatra Provence as claimed by some (Hirth, 1888; Coedès, 1918) but rather Muaro Jambi Regency in Jambi Provence (Agus, 2013).^[xxx] In addition, the large flood plain region in the upper delta area of the Irrawaddy (Ayeyarwady) River in Myanmar or Irrawaddy Division^[46n] may have been a collection of large open bodies of water on the order of shallow, pond like lakes. The Da Ming Hun Yi Tu and Honil Gangni Yeokdae Gukdo Ji Do maps representing the low lying area prior British alteration. The upper delta region having been drained and dyked starting from the 1860's, seized by the British after the Second Anglo-Burmese War of 1852, becoming part of British Burma.^[46o] The centrally placed dot illustrated in the upper portions of the peninsula located body of water and noted on the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu and Honil Gangni Yeokdae Gukdo Ji Do though larger on the Korean map, being the isolated 4,981' ft (1,518 m) peak of Mount Popa.^[46p] The maps indicating that what is today Mount Popa National Park in Myanmar and pilgrimage site for Buddhist, at the time of the maps creation, was a discrete island situated in a lake.

     Such charting deviation in the Joseon from the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu relative to the southern archipelago, perhaps the result of cartographers in Korea not having a physical copy of the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu, the information provided and rendered being second hand content having been extracted from a Japanese produced and shared facsimile.^[46q]

     ^[49a]

(Fig. 16, above) Comparison renderings of the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu relative to an appropriately scaled overlay map of eastern Asia (left) so as to have optimum conformance with the region surrounding Bohai 渤海[51a] (Bo Sea) and Hancha 西朝鮮灣[51b] (Korea Bay) in northeast China along with fifteen point-to-point plotting relationships (right) between the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu and the overlay of eastern Asia (Zhou, 2013; adapted, McGraw, 2016). (Fig. 17, below) Diagram indentifying coastline regions along with some islands and inland features illustrated on the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu (Zhou, 2013; adapted, McGraw, 2016). It should be noted, irrespective of the understanding that Admiral Zheng He was a practitioner of the Muslim faith, the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu and for the greater part, is a map representing the Buddhist world. Hence the noting of the former Hindu and converted to Buddhism region surround Mount Popa (Myanmar), to the city of Angkor Thom in Khmer (Cambodia) and the small region on Sumatra near Srivijaya (Sān Fó Qí 三仏斉), to being inclusive of areas near the Pescadores (Sān Fú Qí 三佛齊) and Taiwan along with the city of Kyoto (Biwa Lake) Japan[xxx] and Korean Peninsula. The city (monastery) and Buddhist center for learning, Nà làn tuó 那爛陀[xxx] (Nalanda) India and visited by the Chinese, Yijing in the late 7th century (xxxx, xxxx),[xxx] and destroyed by Muslim forces in ca. 1200 CE (xxxx, xxxx)[xxx] just missing being included on the western edge of the map. Regions that were non Buddhist in orientation such as the lower Malay Peninsula (south of Kra Isthmus), the majority of Sumatra and Borneo (Muslim)(xxxx, xxxx)[xxx] along with Java (Hindu)(xxxx, xxxx)[xxx] being excluded with the map ceases along the boundary of Indian (Hindu, Sikh ...) centric domain. The conflicting latitude placement for the high elevation Himalayan Mountains 喜馬拉雅山 (Xǐmǎlāyǎ shān)[xxx] and Tibetan Plateau (xxxx, xxxx)[xxx] 青藏高原 (Qīngzàng Gāoyuán),[xxx] both shown to have an excessive northern reach, perhaps an effort on the part of the Chinese illustrator to more closely align as did the cartographically independent Greeks the κλήματα (klimata or climate)[xxx] as done by Posidonius ca. 100 BCE (Geminus, 50CE; Evans and Berggren, 2007)[xxx] (environment) for this cold and barren domain in places and times of the year is reminiscent of sub arctic regions of the globe.[xxx]

     ^[49a1]

      Complicating the usefulness of these maps and their misrepresentation of the maritime area south of Hainan Dao 海南島 (Hainan Island) and the Ryukyu Shoto 琉球諸島 (Ryukyu Archipelago), is the incorrect placement and representation of the predominate archipelagoes located further south in the South China Sea region such as the Philippines, Borneo to include present day Indonesia. In addition, the three maps being non-coordinate based (compass bearing predicated), are unqualified spatial renderings of the China Sea region. Overall, the Honil Gangni Yeokdae Gukdo Ji Do, Da Ming Hun Yi Tu along with the later produced 1726 official map of the Qing Cháo 清朝 (Qing Dynasty)(1644-1912)^[47] printed in Gujin Tushu Jicheng 古今圖書集成 and on the whole seaming to be nonchalant if not dismissive in nature relative to association, location and size of the various archipelagoes located in the China Seas along with the islands located in the northern regions of the South China Sea, the constant exception being the Island of Hainan, and likely related to limits associated with contemporaneous Chinese navigation and charting technology.

     The three maps, Honil Gangni Yeokdae Gukdo Ji Do 混一疆理歷代國都之圖 (Illustration of Included Lands and Regions of Historical Countries and Capitals), Da Ming Hun Yi Tu 大明混一圖 (Illustrated Copulation of the Great Ming), and the Gujin Tushu Jicheng 古今圖書集成 printed Qing Cháo 清朝 (Qing Dynasty), each map spanning the distance from the Sea of Japan along the eastern portion of the Korean Peninsula to the Brahmaputra and Ganges River Delta near the present day city of Chittagong in Bangladesh and situated on the northern arc of Bengal Bay^[58], in tandem with the minimally revealing open water segments of the cartographic content, being a strong indication that the ocean vessels and crews of the period and region tend not to venture more than 1-2 days sailing from any single land mass, the maritime traffic and trade being limited to littoral waters.

     The pictorial and non scaled map titled Hé hánghǎi tú 鄭和航海圖^[58a] and only known map to depict the entire route taken by Admiral Zheng He and his expedition fleet (Figs. 18-28), printed in the text Wǔ bei zhì, 武備志^[58b] (Wu bei zhi) and edited by Mao Yuán yí 袁懋毅^[58c] (1594-1640) in 1621 (Library of Congress)^[58d] demonstrating the littoral nature of the journey. The series of maps, starting from Nánjīng Shì 南京市 (Nanjing City) on the Yangtze River, indicating that the fleet remained within close proximity to large land masses. Each page pair of the map, their being 20 page pairs in all, having the presence of a continental like land mass on at least one side of the passing fleet and at times, both sides. The littoral nature of the map series, there being no periods of open (blue) water isolation, inferring that the navigation means used to chart the course was principally dead reckoning in style, the fleet not guided in general by celestial or compass based navigation.

     ^[58e]

(Fig. 18, above) Photo of page pair 3 (1 of 20) from the 1644 pictorial map titled Hé hánghǎi tú 鄭和航海圖[58f] depicting the route taken by Admiral Zheng He as printed in the 1621 text Wǔ bei zhì, 武備志[58g] (Wu bei zhi)(Library of Congress; adapted, McGraw 2016).[58h] (Figs. 19-28, below) Sequential images from page pairs 4-3, 6-5, 8-7, 10-9, 12-11, 14-13, 16-15, 18-17, 20-19, 22-21 of the pictorial map showing the entire journey by Admiral Zheng He (Library of Congress; adapted, McGraw 2016).[58i]

         ^{[58j], [58j1]
         [58k], [58k1]
         [58l], [58l1]
         [58m], [58m1]
         [58n], [58n1]
         [58o], [58o1]
         [58p], [58p1]
         [58q], [58q1]
         [58r], [58r1]
         [58s], [58s1]}

     It being very probable as seen from the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu^[83n] and Korean Honil Gangni Yeokdae Gukdo Ji Do^[83o] that from at least the late 14^th century, items that were being shipped eastward from India and beyond aboard small (less than 200 tons) but heavily laden, slow moving vessels with a full crew of 15-20, such as a sambuk or junk, with final destinations east of the Malay peninsula did not always sail about the tip of the peninsula by way of the Malacca strait. That during seasons with few trade winds, time saving if not more safe to instead, portage their goods across the peninsula's Kra isthmus near modern day Ranong (western shore) over to Chumphon (eastern shore), easily traversing the Phuket Range (Fig. 29). The Kra isthmus, from at least the start of the 11^th century having being used as a trade route across the Malay peninsula (Skilling, 1997).^[83p] The route using the Kra River (Fig. 31) inlet in the Bay of Sawi on the west side of the isthmus and today forming part of the border between Myanmar and Thailand, transferring to the Hin wua (Hin River) then on the other side of the peninsula divide (Indo-Malay cordillera) to the Chumphon River, exiting into a circular bay ~5 km (~3 miles) in diameter, south of Chumphon City.^[83p1] The repositioning of Admiral Zheng He's expedition team from the eastern shore over to the western shore upon advancing, then opposite upon returning, requiring the crew to switch to difference vessels had they been nearly 400' ft (~125 m) in length and 3,000 tons in weight (Levathes, 1997),^[83p2] less they were able to portage or tow the crafts as well. The movement of Zheng He's fleet, from one facing shoreline of the Malay peninsula over to the other, via narrow and shallow rivers, giving way to the vessels not being extreme in dimensions.

     Thus a valid consideration that Chinese ship captains, beyond concerns for any residual ill will that might still have been present in the lower regions of the Malay peninsula, post the failed Mongol invasion of Java during the 13^th century, also sought to reduce interactions with members of the various negrito tribes (bands) that populated the lower half of the peninsula. (Fig. 30) Such course avoidance scenario being an effort to limit possible attacks and or pirating by negrito bands should the vessel and crew find it necessary to seek shelter in a small cove or bay, having become vulnerable during periods of less wind or from a passing storm, such rapidly changing weather conditions being frequent events in the tropics. The local negrito inhabitants of the Malay Peninsula and in particular the grown reclusive pygmy population, for the sake of their own safety and welfare, having developed a rightful and strong distrust of outsiders. The distrust and ensuing aggression stemming from many centuries of marauding Arab, Indian and other slavers that sought to capture and trade members of the negrito demographic. The 7^th century traveler Yijing reporting that there were many negrito slaves, some there perhaps originally from Khmer (Cambodia), laboring in southern China (Brandt, 1961).^[83p9] Prince Chao Nakon of Siam in 1388 offering in tribute to the Emperor of China along with 30 elephants, 60 foreign slaves (Grimm, 1961).^[83p10] The act of slavery in the Indo China region still in practice by the late 19^th century with a report in 1878 that the Rajah Muda of Songkhla (Singorra) retained negrito slaves. The negritos of the time, some shot while in the process of being captured then enslaved to be exploited, being relegated to sub-human classification (Brandt, 1961).^[83p11]

     ^{[83p3] [83p4]}

(Fig. 29, upper left) Satellite image of Kra Isthmus on the Malay Peninsula[83p5] illustrating the location and path of the highly probable portage taken by Admiral Zheng He (Google, 2016; adapted, McGraw, 2016). The Kra Buri (Kra River) is indiated in yellow with the Chumphon River in blue the majority of the path not exceeding ~100 m (~330' ft) in elevation. Sketch of the Malay Peninsula showing the distribution of negrito bands (Brandt, 1961).[83p6] Had Admiral Zheng He crossed this isthmus, would imply that the expedition did not attempt to cross the equator nor make passage through the Straits of Malacca. The portage across the peninsula explaining for both, the abbreviated length of the Malay Peninsula as illustrated on the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu map, the expedition having not rounded the tip near the present day nation and city of Singapore, along with the large gap that is shown to exist between the southern tip of the Malay peninsula relative to the placement and inaccurate spatial rendering of Sumatra Island and the Sungai Kampar River along with the nearby island group composed of Pulau Bengkalis, Pulau Pedang, Pulau Tebingtinggi and Pulau Rangsang[83p7] to which, represented as a single land mass. Admiral Zheng He and his ships, from maps charted post his journey, appearing to have not sailed to, nor charted any equatorial or south latitude destinations. (Fig. 30, upper right) Sketch of the Malay Peninsula showing the distribution of negrito bands (Brandt, 1961).[83p8] The Kra Buri inlet in the thin, Bay of Sawi shown at top.(Fig. 31, below) Photo of Kra River (xxxx, xxxx)[83r] and possible route taken by Admiral Zheng He had his expedition crossed the Malay Peninsula at Kra Isthmus. Important to note from this photo and from the perspective of celestial navigation (Sun and stars) are the numerous, low elevation cumulous clouds and typical for regions near the equator,[83r1] masking the view to the horizon. The line of sight (LOS) to the horizon needing to remain unobstructed in order to take accurate elevation measurements of the Sun and stars[83r2] to include the North Star, Běijíxīng 北極星[83r3] (Beijixing) or Polaris (α Ursa Minor),[83r4] for latitude determination.[83r5] Such sighting requirement, thus restriction associated with visual and celestial methods of navigation remaining an impediment to the precise knowing of one's location until the invention of the maritime compatible, artificial horizon.[83r6]

     ^[83r7]

     The building of large, multi thousand ton sea going vessels requiring the shipwrights in China to have access to sufficient sums of linear timber to produce large junks in volume, much like the exceptionally fine planks and mast that can be fashioned from massive conifers trees (pine, fir, spruce) leading to the construction of very tall sailing ships. Much like the great abundance of tall conifer trees that were native to the east and west coast of the United States, such plentiful resource not typical to the warm, coastal regions of China, leading to the large American ship building boom of the 18^th and 19^th century.^[83r8] The shipwrights not limited to the use of contorted, thus reduced length boards typical to hardwood trees in the tropics of southeast Asia and low lands of eastern China. A region of China that for thousands of years had already been deforested, the land cleared and converted for agrarian use.

     Not the least of which, the ports of call, they being small, were most likely not capable of or sufficient in scale to provide adequate stores for a ship and accompanying crew for vessels of such magnitude not the least have the capability to warehouse the perishable goods without rotting away. Such basic task being difficult today, even for modern navies as was the case prior to the Spanish American War, World War II and Vietnam War^[83r9] to being a challenging task for large cruise ships when they make port calls abroad.^[83r10] The personnel count on a cruise ship (crew and passengers) being trivial compared to the vast numbers of support personnel and crew needed to tend a large flotilla composed of 100's of ships.^[83r11] The basic, behind the scenes transportation and logistics systems onshore along with nation to nation coordination, during the 15^th century in southeast Asia, most likely not structured to provide a very large and single "just in time" replenishment service for the many tons of fruits, vegetables, meats and water stores. The seasonally dependent shore based replenishment capacity probably limited to just a few days to week's worth of provisions per large vessel (200+ crew).

     Another set of considerations for such a huge flotilla of large ships would have been the task of performing anchorage at sea or in harbor, to simple movement of a large vessel within a harbor. The ship captains and harbor masters not having available the use of small, self powered tug boats or towing vessel (Figs. 32-34) and very important 19^th century technological advancement that helped make large, unyielding, multi thousand ton vessels maneuverable within a harbor or along pier side for safe berthing and placement, practical.^[83r12] The first vessel to demonstrate the ability to tow another vessel and against the wind, occurring in March 1802 with the Scottish built steam powered paddle wheel vessel, the Charlotte Dundas (Brennus, 2001).^[83r13]

     ^{[83r14]
     [83r15]}

(Fig. 32, upper) Exquisite painting, ca. 1849, by James Edward Buttersworth (1817-1894) titled, "Enterprise of New York Arrives in London" (Buttersworth, 1849)[83r16] This important piece of nautical art showing the steam powered tugboat named the London, towing the extreme clipper and very sophisticated vessel named the Enterprise of New York, up the Themes River in the vicinity of the London docklands, the dome of St. Paul's Cathedral low on the distance horizon. The Enterprise of New York and largest ship in the scene, dwarfing the two French frigates to her starboard (right) as spectators in row boats, like small boats and yachts clustering about to greet a spectacular visiting vessel, coming out to admire this new and awe-inspiring generation of sea going vessels. The naval architecture for ships such as the extreme clipper class and their extended hull sizes and mass relative to the typical ship at the turn of the 19th century, in addition to benefiting from the readily available tall, linear timbers near the seaboard of North America, becoming routinely manageable and more important, pragmatic vessels because of the reduce handling efforts and increase safety introduced with the arrival of shepherding tugboats. (Fig. 33, above) Segment from the painting "Enterprise of New York Arrives in London" centered about the steam powered tugboat the London (Buttersworth, 1849; adapted, McGraw, 2016). This painting and less than 50 years post the first test of a towing, self powered vessel, presenting a mid 19th century, twin side paddle wheel tugboat with a much larger vessel under tow, the two vessels joined by a single line, proceeding upriver. Afar are numerous vessels of various types, most all orderly arranged along the wharf with smaller craft in the scene being independently maneuvered under sail. For a sense of scale, note the tugboat crew member and possible captain standing on the gangway spanning the two paddle wheel fenders, directing tasks to others working at the stern near the tow line and the clipper ship's crew and passengers gathered on the main deck about the forward railing watching the then novel and cutting edge technology of ship and tug interaction, relative to the ship's anchor suspended below. The estimated hull dimensions for the Enterprise of New York, using values from similar vessels of the same extreme clipper class, being ~200' ft (+/- 10' ft) in length with ~40' ft (+/- 1' ft) beam, having a dead weight of ~1,600 dwt (+/- 150 tn), drafting ~21' ft (+/- 1' ft)[83r17] or about half the size and weight of the vessels stated by some to have been used by Admiral Zheng He and without the aid of self powered tugboat like vessels to assist his large fleet with tidal currents and wind induced vessel drift to berthing and anchorage assignments in port. (Fig. 34, below) Photo of the first steam powered tugboat built in the United States of America, the Goliath. The side wheel vessel, shown in the photo prior to 1889, having been built in New York City in 1849 (University of Washington).[83r18] It being probable, per the construction style of other mid 19th century tugboats, that the white pilot house forward of the smoke stack was a later addition to the vessel.

     ^[83r19]

     A 3,000 ton vessel with cargo (~4,000 ton), moving at a speed of 2 knots (kts), given 1 kts = 1.15 m/hr or 1.85 km/hr, producing huge translating forces upon contact, kinetic force (F_k) at that moment equal to [F_k = ¹/₂mv²] (m) being mass, (v) being velocity^[83r20] and coupled inertia upon impact with a stationary object (pier). The scalar multiplier values for a vessel with speeds of 0.5, 1, 2 and 4 kts being 0.25, 1, 4 and 16 times the mass of the moving vessel. It not always being possible to maneuver not the least retain positive control of such vessel should it be dependent upon using only tidal currents or batten sails that by design are not well suited for tacking upwind, or restricted to the limiting nature of mooring lines and rowboats. Since integrated, near waterline ores on any large vessel are not sufficient to rotate a large ship about. The typical wind powered vessel, without the aid of a tugboat, having a large and laborious turning radius.

     It being principally the invention of the steam powered tugboat and the newly gained ability by ship captains and harbor masters to carefully position or relocate without damage to vessel or infrastructure, large, heavy ships in tight quarters, the materials used for hull construction along with later advancements in propulsion design being secondary elements, that eventually permitted ships to greatly increase in scale. Thus, just 50 years post the 19^th century advent of the tugboat, the largest vessels had increased in dimension from ~250' ft in length and ~2000 dwt to ~350' ft in length and ~4,000 dwt.^[83r21]

     In addition to being able to coordinate the movements of large vessels within a harbor environment comes the necessity for each of the ports to have sufficient depth clearance to prevent the ships from grounding. This minimum draft requirement being a difficult specification to be meet for areas that have a naturally forming shallow sea floor grade, thus slowing encroaching upon terrain. Such being the case for much of Southeast Asia as the Sunda region of the Asian continental shelf (xxxx, xxxx)³⁵ reaches outward for many miles from the coastline (Fig. xx). The bathymetry of the South China Sea or the continental shelf being fairly shallow at 50m (~160' ft) or less (World Data System for Marine Environmental Sciences, Anderson, 2014).^xx This shallow sea floor region extending out many miles from shore, enveloping the Tonkin Gulf, continuing south to Ca Mao Peninsula (Vietnam) to include the entire circumference of the Gulf of Thailand reaching the tip of the Malay Peninsula. The nature of the seafloor in many areas of the tropics enhanced by shoreline protected by surf breaking, reef like structures resulting in the formation of shallow sandy bottoms extending out 100's of meters from shore.^[xx] A typical example of such sea floor morphology being the south facing shoreline of Oahu Island in Hawai`i.^[xx] In some areas of Eastern Asia, the high rate of silt discharge from the rivers such as the Yellow and Yangzi resulting in shallow deltas such as that off the coast of China near cities of Tianjin and Shanghai.^[xx] China, near the city of Shanghai, needing to construct a deep water port connected with a bridge extending out over the ocean for nearly 12 miles to obtain sufficient water depth for large container ships.^[xx]

     ^[xx]

(Fig. 35) Map illustrating the bathymetry of the South China Sea (Anderson, 2014)[xx] near the Sunda region.[xx] The maritime region of Indo China having very shallow ocean depth resulting in few, natural forming deep water ports.[xx] The large ships stated to have been part of Admiral Zheng He's treasure fleet, the vessel hulls per various models and single modern reconstruction needing upwards of 20' ft (6.1 m) in draft if not more, until the advent of self powered dredging machinery and long pier structures, being impractical vessel dimensions for most of the littoral waters of the South China Sea. Thus the historical and pervasive use by local inhabitants of pragmatic, reduced size, shallow draft boats in the region. The deeper regions of the South China Sea, those areas north and west of Luzon Island in the Philippines being prone to having some of the most severe sea state conditions in the world (xxxx, xxxx).[xx]

     The ability to significantly dredge harbors to meet hull depth requirement, outside of the very limited Roman technique of using divers to physically remove sea bed on to human powered host with low mechanical leverage, not occurring till the late 19^th century with the advent of steam operated shovels and excavators.^[83r22] Given the vessel sizes said to have been used by Admiral Zheng He, from simple scaling, requiring at minimum ~15' ft (~4.6 m) draft and when laden with cargo and crew, perhaps greater than 20' ft (~6.1 m) of clearance at the dock or pier side (Fig. xx). The ready availability and placement of natural deep harbors with low tide depths of 20' or more, during the early Ming Dynasty in the Indo China region and neighboring areas, not known to have commonly existed.

     The Chinese maritime vessels during the time of the Ming Dynasty, Admiral Zheng He (鄭和), and typically known in Chinese as shanban 舢舨,^[59] (sampan) (Fig. 36) or by the Javanese jong,^[60] the word latter modified by the Portuguese to junco or junk[61] and when fitted with a batten sail (rig), a junk rig (xxxx, xxxx).^[62] Such vessel classification and independent of displacement weight, being premised about shallow (littoral) water, inland sea and river craft designs, incorporating a minimal draft and flat bottom (xxxx, xxxx).^[63] Such hull design approach and one very different from European designs that used a low slung keel matched to a raised weather deck, not handling well during high or choppy sea states. The typical junk rig capsizing and or sinking easily during storms due to excess rolling, pitching and heaving when amidst large waves, in addition to being prone to water inundation from a closer to water level weather deck. The contemporaneous junks produced by the Koreans for the Yuan Dynasty (Mongol)(1271-1368) invasion of Japan (xxxx, xxxx)^[64], sinking in marginally rough seas, the waters of the Sea of Japan, simply because of scale, not capable of reaching the magnitude in wave height frequently seen in the South China Seas.

     The mast and means for supporting the mast of the Chinese sampan being problematic to the proposed 300'-400' ft vessel sizes used by Admiral Zheng He. The Europeans incorporating smaller, multi piece sails that are more maneuverable, sails void of the additional mass of stiff or solid structural elements such that the all cloth sails in the presents of some wind can be stowed or unfurled.^[xxx] The European and Arab approach to main sail (non spinnaker) design being antithetical to that implemented on sampans. The small Chinese sampan incorporating bamboo battens (ribs) and single main sail on a short, singular mast, without extensive use of triangular shaped rigging and pulleys to support the mast and sail load. Such sail and mass design when scaled on the order of 100' or more in height and 50' in width or greater, impractical to host in place, weighing perhaps a couple thousand pounds when dry. The heavy Chinese sail needing to be raised into position, where as a much less heavy main, square sail on a European vessel is lowered into place from above, with lines controlling the shape of the sail. The Chinese not having developed robust or sophisticated rope rigging or pulley based tackle (Fig. xx) to gain mechanical leverage to counter the wind load produced by a large single sail, not the least able to resist the forces induced upon the mast as the vessels rolls from port to starboard and pitches fore and aft. Include the additional weight of water absorbed by the large single sail and bamboo battens used to retain the desired sail shape more than likely failing catastrophically in rough seas. The mast structure, given the rigging method used on small junks, when scaled to appropriate dimensions to propel a wind powered vessel with marginally streamline hull on the order of 300'-400' ft and several thousand tons in displacement, probably snapping in multi locations, the failed mast and sail perhaps causing adjacent masts to fail as well. The transfer of forces produced by tension in the triangular shaped, multi line rigging designs seen on European vessels, each rigging independently vectoring and distributing the forces, forming climbable ladder like structures to gain access to upper areas of the mast to host sails and tackle, not incorporated into the Chinese sampan.

     ^{[66], [66a] [67]}

(Fig. 36, upper left) Illustration of ca. 13th century Song Dynasty junk rig vessel with batten sail (xxxx, xxxx)(top)[68] along with photo of junk rig in Hong Kong Harbor (bottom)(Wibean, 2006; adapted, McGraw, 2014).[69] A distinguishing naval architect characteristic of the Chinese junk rig or sampan prior to European influence being a relatively flat, plank bottom void of a ribbed centerline keel, with a raised aft section for handling the sails. The junk rig, being used throughout east, south east and portions of central Asia to include many regions west of the Malacca straits to the Bengal Bay (xxxx, xxxx).[70] Thus very probable that much of the junk activity for the central areas of the Indian Ocean region from prior to the Ming Dynasty and after was conducted without the presence of Chinese mariners. Reports of junk (sampan) like craft being seen as far as Africa's Cape of Diab (Cape Peninsula or Madagascar), being known to sailors from the 15th century such as a 1420 sighting inscribed and rendered image of a junk upon the 1456 Fra Mauro map (xxxx, xxxx).[71] (Fig. 37, upper right) Photo of the replica, sailing ship Nao Victoria in Patagonia, Chile (xxxx, 2013; adapted, McGraw, 2014)[72] and lead ship in Magellan's fleet of three vessels that circumnavigating the world from 1519-1522 (Pigafetta, 1519-1522). Note the deep draft and non flat keel, such hull design being well suited for non littoral, open ocean (blue water) travels during high sea state conditions, permitting for relatively safe, traversing (bisecting) of the oceans. The bulbous hull shape with keel, much of the volume below the waterline, being idea for transporting large sums of ship's stores for the crew, permitting the crew to embark on long and extended, isolated forms of travel, for periods much greater than a month at time without requiring the need to replenish potable water, basic food supplies and other consumable items.[73] (Fig. 38, below) Section of scroll titled Míng chóu Shízhōu Táiwān zòukǎi tú (明仇十州台灣奏凱圖)(Qiu Ying ca. 1550, Historiographical Institute The University of Tokyo 東京大学史料編纂所)[73a] and translated as Ming Forces, Shizhou's Taiwan Victory Illustration,[73b] portraying Ming Dynasty combatants (left) battling pirates, wokou (倭寇) or dwarf invaders, otherwise known as Japanese pirates to include some Chinese pirates (right) on the Island of Taiwan. The vessels depicted in the scroll having flat bottom hulls and not conducive or safe during high sea conditions. (Fig. xx, bottom) Slightly enhanced photo of a painting depicting the November 1839, First Battle of Chuenpee 穿鼻[xxx] (Chuān bí), during the British and Chinese Opium War in the Hǔmén 虎門 (Humen Strait or Bocca Tigris) on the Pearl River delta, Guangdong Province, near Xiānggǎng dǎo 香港島[xxx] (Hong Kong Island) along with a segment at right centered about the closest junk (National Maritime Museum; adapted, McGraw, 2016).[xxx], [xxx] Off in the distance can be seen a combination steam and wind powered warship for the British Royal Navy with Chinese junks fitted with batten sails in the foreground. The bow to stern hull architecture for the junks (sampans) in this scene, the painting contemporaneous with the vessels represented, being constructed with a flat, level bottom as oppose to a "V" shape bottom, thus void of a longitudinal, centerline keel like structure to aid stability during high seas. The center of buoyancy for these flat bottom junks along with center of gravity being placed high along the vessels vertical centerline, resulting in reduced self righting properties.[xxx]

     ^{[73c]
     [xxx]}

     The standard Chinese junk during the Ming Dynasty, unlike the European style naval architecture incorporated into Ferdinand Magellan's ship, the Nao Victoria (xxxx, xxxx)^[65] (Fig. 37), not well suited for transporting large stores of drinking water and food for the crew, needing to replenish frequently, remaining littoral. Records of the voyages lead by the courageous Admiral Zheng He (1405-1433), providing no clear or vague suggestion as to the occurrence of open water, bisecting travels resulting in crew isolation and many day's journey from land and replenishment destinations, either aft, port, starboard or ahead, and revealing indication of blue water voyages had they occurred. The modern recreation of Admiral Zheng He's vessel, with deep center line keel, more of a modern perversion to satisfy critics, the keel based junk being a later adaptation of yearly Arab dāw (dhow) and European (caravel) open water vessels. Thus, by the end of the 17^th century, it was the Europeans that had successfully sailed to China, with China yet to make a nautical voyage to Europe. The Indonesia borobudur ship (Fig. xx) and mid size (~60' feet) vessel hull style with line retained, non batten, cloth sail and in use from about the 8^th century, being a rough seas adaptation of the shallow draft, Muslim introduced dhow with some versions of the borobudur incorporating influences from outrigger canoes (xxxx, xxxx).^[xxx]

     The ... as seen in the fanciful artist rendering of ... (Fig. 39) ... ^[65a] .... A modern recreation of the (Fig. 40) ... ^[65b]

     ^{[xxx]
     [65c]}

(Fig. xx, upper) Photo of an Indonesia borobudur (xxxx, xxxx)[xxx] and mid size (~60' feet) vessel with non batten, line retained, cloth sail that has been in use from about the 8th century.[xxx] The boroburdur's "V" shape hull and keel based design rather than a flat bottom hull such as that used on a Chinese junk, being a rough seas adaptation of the Muslim introduced Arab dhow with added features inspired from outrigger canoes.[xxx] (Fig. 39, above) Typical illustration of a non sea worthy, nor application practical, artist rendering for Admiral Zheng He's supposed treasure ships.[65d] The vessel having a European designed square top sail hanging from mast head, the means of support for such sail and procedures for hosting in place such sail, not defined even in a rudimentary manner.(Fig. 40, below) Photo of a modern recreation and built in Nanjing, of Admiral Zheng He's fleet command vessel.[65e] The modern recreation of this Treasure Ship using a hull architecture that is similar to a European caravel or Arab dhow, being "V" shaped with a center rib that is keel like rather than being Chinese in style with a flat bottomed and barge like. Thus the hull of the modern recreation, with inherently more advantageous center of buoyancy and center of gravity, is more stable and self righting in high seas[xxx] along with being a more rigid and stronger hull[xxx] than that seen on a typical sampan. The vessel on display having been constructed with the use of steel nuts and bolts using smaller, precision cut tropical timbers, some appearing to already be split and perhaps the product of variations in moisture, grain pattern and the accumulating of internal stresses while drying, lowered in place with the use of gantry cranes, thus assembled in piece order and method that is contrary to what would have been used or available during the Ming Dynasty. The central mast being inadequate secured nor sufficient in mechanical design to support a large and heavy, single piece batten sail at sea. The rigging and technology of the rigging, not robust enough to support a multi piece mass, or an array of mast. (Fig. xx, bottom) Photo mosaic of ... (xxxx, xxxx; xxxx, xxxx; xxxx, xxxx; xxxx, xxxx; xxxx, xxxx)[xxx], [xxx], [xxx], [xxx], [xxx]

     <sup>[65f]

[xxx], [xxx], [xxx], [xxx], [xxx]</sup>

     The navigation methods used on the voyages performed by Admiral Zheng He for many reasons, to include crew insecurities relative to obtaining future stores (food and fresh water) to the lack of precision navigational aids (Figs. 41, 42) in the form of cross and back staff, octant and chronometer as indicated by the various degrees of latitude (losing sight of the North Star (Plant, 1986)^[74], Polaris [α Ursa Minor](Burnham, 1973)^[75]) and longitude (timing errors) distortions rendered on maritime maps produced in China from the start of the 12^th century Nán Sòng Cháo 南宋朝 (Southern Song Dynasty)(1127-1279) to the mid Qing Cháo 清朝 (Qing Dynasty)(1644-1911), needing to be premised about simple compass and "dead reckoning" techniques. Dead reckoning navigation method for determining vessel bearing and heading, being reliant upon near continuous visual sighting of at minimum, two stationary masses (Crenshaw, 1974).^[75a] The Arab along with Indian navigators and introduced to China sometime during the 16^th century, using a kamal to ascertain latitude. The kamal being a sort of portable cross staff fashioned from of a simple square or rectangular board with a centrally place through hole, from which the vertically oriented and level board travels along a horizontally held string composed of graduated knots. Per the location of the board along the string, one can deduce the angle to an occulted object such as the North Star or distance to land given prior known as to the height of the object visible in the distance.^[76] The navigation value of such crude device as the kamal, being extremely limit while aboard a rocking vessel at sea.

     Compounding the difficulties of navigating in the South China Seas or any region of the Earth near tropical and equatorial regions (south of Topic of Cancer or Hong Kong) is that clouds frequently obscured the horizon,^[76a] masking at times the viewing of the North Star that is situated low on the horizon. Such astronomical limits inhibiting Chinese navigators to properly locate latitude using the North Star. In addition, there is no evidence to suggest Chinese navigators had access or knew how to use a mariner's astrolab (low wind resistance, skeletal frame) to aid in daytime navigation using the sun to help determine latitude. That it was not until the Qing Dynasty did Chinese mariners eventually have access to European invented and supplied optical devices such as the octant and sextant^[76b] or ephemeris. The positions in longitude being even more course as the Chinese did not have access to proper surface velocity (e.g. knots/hour) and time measuring devices that operated continuously from departure location or could be recalibrated during an extended maritime voyage,^[76c] in the form of precision clock or chronometer.^[76d]

     The lack of a sea worthy timing instrument of a precise and accurate nature (1^o degree in longitude corresponding to 60 nautical miles)^[76e] such as the "sea watch" or H4 chronometer (1759), the watch invented by John Harrison (1693-1776) of England,^[76f] inhibiting greatly the ability of Chinese and or other Asian junk captains from knowing the distance traveled in longitude on open waters, to which compounded in difficulty by needing to travel against prevailing ocean currents to travel eastward.^[76g] A replica of the H4 or the K1 being used by Captain Cook (1728-1779) for his transpacific voyage to the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii).^[76h] Thus the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu is highly distorted, the distortions growing in longitude with plotted distance and latitude as a function of not being able to sight the North Star.

     The Chinese appearing to have difficulty incorporating technology shared to them by Europeans, the analytically base techniques and resulting instrumentation being shun by imperial decry from the early half of the Ming Dynasty. The specific desire by Imperial China not to use and or incorporate, thus lean how to best implement such devices for everyday use to include commerce and maritime trade, being known to Europeans that reported even in the 19^th century that clocks and sun dials in China, as an act of spite, were intentionally configured not to indicate proper local time (xxxx, xxxx).^[76h1] The shunning of European provided technology being extended to maritime instruments such as the maritime compass and eventually the sextant. The proper uses of European designed astronomical instrumentation in China also straying from proper implementation and use as can be seen at the Běijīng Gǔ Guānxiàngtái 北京古觀象台^[76h2] (Beijing Astronomical Observatory) with the Chinese produced, European designed astronomical quadrant that is located on the observatory's roof top, observation deck (McGraw, 2006)(Fig. 42). The Beijing Observatory and elsewhere in China, during the Ming Dynasty not known for amassing or assembling for distribution to aid maritime navigation, printed ephemeris information sharing the expected rising and setting times of the Sun, Moon and various bright stars for specific, geo spatially determined locations on the Earth, such as that having been produced in London England (Royal Observatory Greenwich),^[76h3] Paris France (Observatoire de Paris)^[76h4] and at a later date, Washington D.C. in the United States of America (U.S. Naval Observatory).^[76h5]

     The quadrant's bilateral, centerline armature and principle line of sight (LOS),^[76h6] sighting staff with plumb line ring (counter weight) mounted at the front end of the staff, being errantly attached, placed 90^o degrees counter clock wise in rotation from normal assembly, relative to the instrument's elevation (hemispheric gear) and azimuth (vertical centerline) axis's, incorrectly pointing towards the west as oppose to pointing towards the north as it should be. The sighing staff, as assembled in the photo, when the instrument operator rotates the six spoke adjustment knob, simply resulting in the sighting staff to rotating (revolve) about the optical axis (line of sight) rather than increasing and decreasing in elevation. The quadrant as displayed oriented towards the user, away from the astronomical object of interest. For an analogy, if this instrument were a telescope, would have the front aperture pointed in the direction of the user rather than at the sky. When properly assembled and oriented, the curvature element of the instrument facing the object of interest, the entire instrument tilting from 0^o to 180^o degrees (horizon to horizon) to permit the tracking of a transiting object overhead, the plumb line (missing) dropping adjacent to the horizon bar (reference) to provide a visual perpendicular guide or orthogonal reference for the horizon bar. The plumb line primarily used when the instrument is being positioned to make the more difficult to sight measurements of objects placed higher than 45^o degrees in elevation. The instrument's, angularly adjustable horizon bar, to compensate for rotation of the Earth, needing to be constantly checked and correctly repositioned for each elevation angle sighting of the instrument. Such instrument working best with two operators one individual to sight the instrument in elevation and azimuth, the second operator to insure proper placement of the horizon reference for proper angle measurement and to note angle values.

^{[76i], [76j], [76k], [76k1], [76k2], [76k3], [76k4]}

(Fig. 41, above) Image mosaic from upper left, a ca. 9th century Arabic Rub`ul mujayyab,[76k5] (Sinecal or Sine) Quadrant (xxxx, xxxx; adapted, McGraw, 2016)[76l] with plumb line not installed and instrument designed to take elevation (altitude) measurements of the Sun and generally not stars. The device and produced in solid plate form, thus vulnerable to wind buffet, being intended for land, not maritime use. At left center and in skeletal form is a Maritime Astrolab (xxxx, xxxx; adapted, McGraw, 2016)[76m] and similar to the sine quadrant an instrument designed primarily to measure the elevation of the Sun. Note in the image at lower left (xxxx, xxxx; adapted, McGraw, 2016)[76n] how the user is holding the device, looking down upon the instrument to insure proper optical alignment with the Sun. At top center is a collection of scaled drawings representing the principle navigation tools of an optical nature that were used by European sailors during the 15th-18th century. Such navigation aids being typically shun or not appreciated during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. At center is a back staff (xxxx, xxxx; adapted, McGraw, 2016)[76n1] which in the lower right corner is shown in use (xxxx, xxxx; adapted, McGraw, 2016).[76n2] At center bottom is the simple cross staff shown in use in use (xxxx, xxxx; adapted, McGraw, 2016).[76n3] (Fig. 42, below) Image collection of astronomical and navigational instruments, from left a Ming Dynasty astronomical quadrant placed along the Běijīng Gǔ Guānxiàngtái 北京古觀象台 (Beijing Astronomical Observatory) roof top, observing deck, rampart like edge (McGraw, 2006).[76n4] It should be noted that the instrument and designed by Jesuit Priests from Europe is not per it's assembly and as displayed, configured or oriented for proper usage. At top center is a maritime quadrant (xxxx, xxxx; adapted, McGraw, 2016)[76o] .... ... At center a maritime sextant (xxxx, xxxx; adapted, McGraw, 2016)[76p] .... at center bottom, the two instrument styles shown in use(xxxx, xxxx; adapted, McGraw, 2016)[76q] .... At upper right the sea going, Harrison H1 Chronometer (xxxx, xxxx; adapted, McGraw, 2016)[76r].... At lower right, the Harrison H4 Chronometer (xxxx, xxxx; adapted, McGraw, 2016)[76r1] ....

^{[76s], [76t], [76t1], [76t2], [76t3], [76t4]}

     Given such location awareness limitations, Admiral Zheng He's fleet needed to remain within sight of or at most a day's travel or two of landmarks in the form of continental coastline to islands (e.g. locating food and water). Such means of nautical travel, from point A to B, being considered littoral (coastal) in nature and until the arrival of the late 14^th century European voyagers, the traditional navigation method used about the perimeter of large continental masses. The bold journey taken by Columbus bi-sected (traversed) the North Atlantic Ocean as appose to travelling about the perimeter from Ireland to Iceland to Greenland to Newfoundland and down the North American Atlantic coastline. Admiral Zheng He is not known for having bisected any large body of water from the South China Sea to the Indian Ocean, his journey consisting of a series of shoreline hopping excursions of a brief nature.

     The commercial trade and traffic (sea-lanes) to the Philippines at the time of Magellan, traversing (island hopping) by way of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Timor and the Celebes Sea rather than traversing the difficult to navigate in longitude and dangerous South China Sea. The Indonesian archipelago defining the southern rim of the Southern China Seas (Fig. 43). When Ferdinand Magellan was defeated in 1521 at the Battle of Mactan by Chief (Ci) Lapu-Lapu on Mactan Island and adjacent to Zebu Island of the Visayas group in the Philippines (Fig. 44), was known at the time by merchants, as there was no official "lingual Franco" for the region, that the South China Seas region was a neutral area. The only "common" language spoken in the Philippines Archipelago region of Zebu Island (Cebu) at the time of Magellan's arrival and most furthest north and east archipelago chain defining the eastern rim of the South China Sea region being an altered Malay dialect. Magellan successfully communicating to the indigenous Pilipino tribes via his personal Malay slave that understood the slightly altered Malay dialect (Pigafetta, 1519-1522).

     The tribal chiefs of the regions, per a Magellan voyage log not familiar with forms of communication using written language. Magellan impressing the local inhabitants by exhibiting writing skills (Pigafetta, 1519-1522)^[77] and from such may conclude that this region of the Philippines had not yet been exposed to Chinese text. In addition, the Chinese very likely never sailing or having knowledge of the even further eastward placed Mariana Islands, as the natives of Guam, the islands known by Spanish sailors as the Thief Islands, the natives early stealing a small skiff tied to the fantail of the Nao Victoria, being unaware of projectile based weapons premised about the bow to include cross bows. The people of Guam, per reports by Magellan's crew being astonished by the presence and use of bows and arrows and principle projectile based weapon carried by Ming Dynasty armies (xxxx, xxxx),^[78] while being repelled by the Spaniards during an act of aggression from the islanders of Guam (Pigafetta, 1519-1522).^[79]

     The few porcelain wares seen in the Philippines by Magellan and his crew and most likely would have been a significant discovery and factor against making sovereign claim of the island for Spain, had such not been the case, being void of any writing or Chinese hallmark. The wares seen by Magellan's crew more than likely the product of the Malay Peninsula and Vietnam region. The collection of vase examples in the slide below (Fig. 45)(McGraw et. al., 2013) and providing close up detail of Chinese hallmarks, at the time of Magellan's visit to the Philippines would have been contemporaneous with the Ming Dynasty. It being within character, had Chinese emissaries and officials visited the Philippines prior to Magellan's visit, to include the formulating of political relations such as establishing hierarchy would have had some control, thus nautical charting of the maritime trade routes that bisected the open waters between the two domains. It not being reasonable to presume that Chinese officials, those sent on an emissary visit to the Philippines, a journey that requires traversing a large body of dangerous water, would do so without prior knowledge as to how to reach their final destination.

     Had such interaction taken place from antiquity, thus enhancing Chinese claim to the region, spanning an extended timeline prior to western sharing of nautical charts, could also expect some evidence of imperial offerings if porcelain in nature, to have been older than Ming (明) Dynasty products, reaching back to perhaps the Song (宋) and Tang (唐) Dynasties or prior to Mongol (Yuan, 元) control.

      ^{[80] [81]}

(Fig. 43, upper left) Satellite image of the central west Pacific region (Google Map 2014; adapted, McGraw, 2014).[82] (Fig. 44, upper right) Satellite image centered about the Philippine archipelago, the white line representing the approximate course taken by Magellan's fleet in 1521 (Google Map 2014; adapted, McGraw, 2014). The Philippine Island of Palawan, located just left of center, the Island of Cebu (Zebu), similarly to the right of center.[83] (Fig. 45, below) Slide and associated discussion (McGraw et. al., 2013) regarding the authenticity of the record setting 51.6 million pounds ($83 million dollar), Qing (清) Dynasty vase.[83a] The imperial hallmark, beyond composition properties of the maturing material, being central in the comparison process relative to other known examples of a similar nature on display at the Shanghai Museum and Forbidden City, Beijing China.[83b] Magellan's crew, upon arriving in the Philippines, making no note of having seen Chinese hallmarks on the porcelain objects possessed by the local leadership (Pigafetta, 1519-1522).[83c] Such delicate objects of value, had they been gifted by China and representing political relations with the imperial dynasty, given the logistic and economic expense just to make such sovereign level gesture, would have been embellished with imperial inscriptions in the form of dynastic markings. The imperial seal being critical to strategically reaffirming China's hierarchical status along with which Emperor had established such relations and political status upon the inhabitants of the archipelagoes to include comprehension as to China's direct assertion and control of the maritime region. The annexing of the region by China, had it occurred prior to the 16th century and to remain consistent with previous expansion of geographic awareness, resulting in the necessary incorporating of such region into official, Chinese maps of known domains, with no such 15th century or prior, Chinese produced map existing today or having known to exist. It being shown from at least the 12th century Nán Sòng Cháo 南宋朝 (Southern Song Dynasty)(1127-1279), Gujin Hua Yi Quyu Zongyao Tu 古今華夷區域摠要圖 (Illustration of the Ancient and Present Territories of China and Foreign Countries), that Chinese leadership would produced revised cartographic representation as a formal means of expressing greater geographic awareness. Had the inclusion of the expansive maritime region been instituted, a region that encroaches upon the Philippine archipelagoes, by default imperial domain, becoming incorporated into China's tributary system of perimeter and military control. The mere act of Chinese inclusion resulting in some level of honorific status being bestowed upon the local leadership to which, would have been keenly shared to Magellan's crew had such status existed, none of which noted or observed from the social behavior exhibited and recorded by Magellan's assertively observant and note taking crew. It being more probable that the inhabitants of the Philippine Archipelagoes, at the time of Magellan's arrive, had yet formulated by actions any political relations to include the relinquishing from the omission of actions, authority of the maritime region to Chinese oversight and control.

     ^[83d]

     The tribal people of Palawan and more centrally located in the South China Sea, per Magellan's logs, being those ejected from Borneo for not being Muslim (Pigafetta, 1519-1522). The people of Palawan unaware of Chinese sailors or trade arrive direct from China, sharing no stories of direct Chinese trade. Trade on the island of Palawan being conducted with such far-reaching lands as Siam and Indian, by way of the south archipelagos, merchandize island hopping, not directly across the treacherous open waters of the South China Sea from mainland China. The furthest north trading port in the Philippines and second to Zebu relative to volume, being south of present day Manila on Luzon Island, from which inter coastal (littoral) trade via junk traffic took place only once a year to the southern islands. The products from Luzon being indigenous in nature and not representative of trade arriving direct from mainland China by way of the rough South China Seas. The open waters of the Luzon Strait being the roughest seas in the world (Lien, and Henyey, 2010; Mercier, 2013; Peacock, 2013).

     The annual trade schedule in the Philippines and elsewhere in the South China Seas such as along the coastlines of Vietnam and Borneo, being a function of seasonal wind patterns (Fig. 46). The general direction for the winds along the more protected, inner coastal water routs in the Philippines during the winter months being to the southwest in the direction of Borneo, the winds changing direct during the summer, flowing towards the northeast in the direction of Luzon (xxxx, xxxx).^[xxx] Near the Tonkin Gulf region, the winds in the winter tending to flow towards the southwest and parallel to much of the Chinese shoreline, the winds becoming north by northwest during the summer and onshore for most of south east China. Irrespective, the wind and ocean current directions and patterns from any part of China's southeast coastline and across to Taiwan are generally not in the direction of the open water regions of the South China Sea. The ocean surface currents, since they are dependent upon wind forces and direction being generally in agreement. Because of wind and ocean current directions along with the Chinese use of batten sails, such sails not well structured for tacking a vessel upwind, suggesting that travel across the South China Sea from the coast of China, towards the Philippines would have been difficult to accomplish, encouraging the use of other pathways.

     ^[xx]

(Fig. 46) Seasonal vector maps indicating the general strength and direction of the winds in the South China Sea area for summer (left) and winter (right). The vector scale at upper left representing 5 m/s (~16.4' ft/s).[xxx] The wind patterns suggesting that travel from the southern coastline of China directly outwards towards the central regions of the South China Seas onwards towards the Philippine Island of Luzon would have been difficult for the typical Chinese sampan. The wind patterns indicating the most practical and safe maritime routes were those not venturing far from shore, navigable using simple dead reckoning methods. Thus reasonable to presume if not impractical to suggest, in addition to there being no records of such activity, that until the arrival of European sailors there were no direct maritime routes between China and Taiwan to the Philippines and Palawan Island, thus the relative isolation of the Filipino people relative to Chinese culture and lifestyle and in particular the practice of writing. However, it is very probable that checkered one-way transits did occur from the Philippines to Taiwan, thus the early human arrivers on Taiwan were Australasian in genes (xxxx, xxxx)[xxx] and Austronesian in language (Tumonggor, Karafet, Hallmark, Lansing, Sudoyo, Hammer, and Cox, 2013).[xxx]

     The Chinese merchants plying the waters along the Malay Peninsula region, as were others, some from distant places such as India and the Middle East, though typically implementing vessels with superior, "V" shaped hull design, mutually "tolerated" by the numerous regional kingdoms and chiefdoms. The self governing archipelagoes of the eastern portion of the South China Sea along with Celebes Sea, becoming less remote and increasingly aware of each other's presence with the arrival of European explorers, less a city state, being traditionally excluded from the tributary system of perimeter control exerted by China. These very distant regions and to the Chinese rulers populated with not just foreigners but yí 夷 (barbarian) occupants, considered logistically too remote for proper political administration. The many logistical problems associated with remote maritime domains being readily apparent in the attempted and failed Mongol (Yuan Dynasty) invasion of Java.

     The "Spice Islands" as they were know to the Europeans at the time, geographically encompassing the entire South China and Celebes Sea. The Europeans, having a prior and long history of trade with China though mostly over land or by way of Arab mariners, it being known that the Roman Empire needing to place import restrictions on silk to help minimizes the outflow of currency from leaving the Empire,^[83e] having an even longer history of trade with Indians by means of land and maritime routes from the time of Alexandra the Great,^[83f] not reporting the presences of many Chinese vessels with Chinese crew directly shipping products nor expressing much direct cultural awareness or interaction by Chinese mariners with the many and diverse perimeter inhabitants in the region. The Indo China and South Pacific region, from the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra, Java and Borneo having been from the Tang Dynasty, already heavily influenced by Indian followers of the Hindu religion^[83g] followed by Muslims prior to the start of the Song Dynasty.^[83h] The language spoken in these areas and propagating into Taiwan being Indo based.^[83i] Thus maritime trade in the lower regions of the South China Seas was more the province of Malay and Indian traders along with the many indigenous people from Borneo, the Philippines and Celebes. The upper and western regions of the South China Sea being over sighted by those from Siam, Khmer and Champa.^[83j] These areas and originally establish be Hindu followers transitioning by the 13^th century into being majority Buddhist, and centered about Angkor Borei^[83j1] functioning more as an integrated region compared to the strong religious duality that has and is still present in the lower regions of the South China and Celebes Sea.

     ^[83j2]

(Fig. 47 above) Photo of Giacomo Gastaldi, very reviling 1548 map titled India Tercera Nova Tabvla as printed in Gastaldi's edition of Ptolemy's Geographia showing the Malay Peninsula. This map and produced only 27 years post Magellan's arrival in the Philippines, illustrating the Parcel atolls as the Atabalero, the South China Sea as Provincia Di Malvco and not Provincia Di La China, the Gulf of Thailand being labeled as the Golpho Permuda. This being one of the earliest and most complete map of the China Sea region starting from Canton (Pearl River Delta) and northern terminus for the coastline to below the equator, including the Islands of Java and Timor to the Golpho De Bengala (Gulf of Bengal). This map suggesting that the South China Sea was not the domain of China. (Fig. 48 below) Photo of the 1554 map, Terza Ostro Tavola by Giovanni Battista Ramusio.[83k] This map and frequently represented upside down and backwards, being peculiar in that the written text is reverse and upside down relative to the charted geography, the Tropic of Cancer to include the many sea creatures and vessels that are rendered on the water surface. The map perhaps created in such manner as a means to intentionality confuse those less informed or for those that were not suppose to be in possession of the map such as a spy or pirate, a sort of "hidden in plain sight". The misrepresenting of the then sensitive map to the commercially lucrative Spice Islands, if not an honest mistake, perhaps done as a means to miss direct the unwary to mistakenly read the geography in an inverted orientation from the text and reality. This maritime chart, perhaps one of the oldest to represent both the Parcel and Spratly region and more important as a sprinkling of shallow and dangerous to navigate reefs and atolls. These shallow regions, having been assigned European names, the Europeans having already sailed these waters for the better part of 50 years and fairly well acquainted with domains understood to be controlled by China from at least the days of Marco Polo (Yuan Dynasty)[83k1] and beyond, suggesting that these marginally understood maritime areas were void of any Chinese or any other well known or generally accepted preferential name used by persons other than the local inhabitants if any. Sailors in tradition, not having an aversion to adopting local names when known, for no better reason than to limit confusion upon seeking the same location upon a return visit. A secondary motivation being to reduce the chance of the same area being reported as a new location and assigned multiple names, leading to a loss of geographic placement continuity between cartographers, not the least leading to confusion for mariners as they seek to repeat a journey or avoid a dangerous course. The lower Malay Peninsula (left of center) being abbreviated south of the Kra Isthmus, the bottom half shown to have a large island at the tip and perhaps representing the modern city state island of Singapore just above the equator. The Terza Ostro Tavola map extending east to the Solomon Islands and north to the Mariana Islands, the single island mass just past the Topic of Cancer in the upper right corner perhaps a representation of Taiwan (Formosa).[83k2]

     ^[83k3]

     The presence of Chinese style vessels in the South China Sea such as junks, not in itself an implication that the vessels were operated by Chinese in much the same manner a large semi truck, one produced in a similar style and manner as that produced in North America, if located in South America, the general rule to good engineering practice being if it works don't change it less there be a strong and compelling reason to alter the design, not implying that the truck's operator is an North American driver. The duplicating of non protected technology being an act practice from the start of human history. Thus the discovery of a wrecked sambuk does not imply Arab or Indian crew nor would the wreck of a junk automatically imply a Chinese crew. The transferring of goods from one vessel to another vessel, as they travel between port to port, being the standard practice. Few items leaving China, even today, arriving on the same transport or means of transport upon arrival to their final destination whether it be North America or Europe. Jingdezhen ware porcelains produced in 14^th century China^[83l] if found in a ship wrecked junk like vessels in Java or Malaysia not an absolute that the crew was Chinese. For the logistical problems associated with the scores of languages and dialects that one would need to exercise just to ship Jingdezhen ware from China to Borneo or Bali, a voyage that could start from Hangzhou then to Canton, Champa and down the Malay Peninsula, across to Srivijaya then on to Borneo or Bali^[83m] that beyond the responsible agent or staff that might be on board to escort the goods, perhaps best performed and far more efficient and cost effective if the transport path was structured in a relay manner with a multitude of local vessels and local operators being in service, the goods and shipping agent(s) transfer to the next vessel. Case in point, my most recent trip to China, though scheduled as being on an American airline, in fact departing as a code share ride incorporating a Chinese airline and Chinese crew.

     What I believe to be the earliest known surviving Chinese style map (Fig. 51) to reasonably place and render Taiwan (Formosa), along with Sakishima Shotō 尖閣群島 (Sakishima Islands),^[83s] Yaeyama Shotō 八重山諸島 (Yaeyama Islands),^[83t] Okinawa Hontō 沖縄本島 (Okinawa, Main Island),^[83u] sections of Japan such as Kyushu, Shikoku, and Honshu along with the Island of Jeju Do also known as Dao Yi or Shima Ebisu (島夷) (Island of Barbarians) off the southern tip of the Korean Peninsula,^[83v] being a painting (secondary image, ca. 1540) of the original map produced by the visiting Italian Jesuit missionary Martino Martini and known in China as Wèi Kuāngguó (衛匡國).^[83w] This second order map incorporating traditional Chinese illustrating methods for portraying coastline features and rivers. The cartographic style remaining highly consistent with maps produced in China from at minimum the Sòng Dynasty, thus it is a non Mercator, non coordinate based in style, a map void of longitude and latitude lines. The map created by Martino, from the placement of the Japanese archipelago relative to Taiwan, providing some suggestion as to having been plotted in part from magnetic, compass bearing information. The placement of the Japanese archipelago being off in azimuthal bearing relative to Taiwan island by approximately -10^o degrees, such error corresponding well with the (~8^o) magnetic declination error value (Fig. 49) for that part of the world.^[83x] This map, and one of the first to express the majority of the islands spanning from Japan to Taiwan, most likely having been crafted from navigation data that was ascertained and provided to Martini by European mariners.

     ^[83x1]

(Fig. 49, above) Map of the world magnetic declination values for epoch 2005 (xxxx, xxxx; adapted, McGraw, 2016).[83x2] The declination error value lines graduated in 2o degree intervals, the red lines corresponding to +10o degree intervals (clockwise), the blues line -10o degrees (counter clockwise), the green line being null or no deviation value. The chart expressing some of the difficulties associated with plotting and mapping any large area of the Earth's surface using a simple, non correcting, maritime compass. (Fig. 50, below) Illustration showing the magnetic declination variations (deviation values) for the Eastern United State from the years 1750-2010. The data collected from the following cities: Rochester NY, Pittsburgh PA, Charleston WV, Lexington KY, Nashville TN, Asheville NC, Atlanta GA, Augusta ME, Boston MA, New York NY, Pittsburgh PA, Richmond VA, Raleigh NV, Columbia SC (USGS, 2011; NASA 2012; Google Map 2013; McGraw, 2013). The individual city charts having a declination deviation ranging from -/+ 20o degrees, the data for the year 2010 at top.[83x3] The changing deviation values over time, implying that magnetic deviation null line is moving and differentially, in a non linear manner, some areas expressing higher or lower levels of variation in magnetic declination. (Tbl. 1, bottom) Accompanying table showing the discrete, declination deviation values for each of the 14 city locations indicated in addition to Hartford CT, Baltimore MD, Roanoke VA, Knoxville KY. The numeric colors representing the direction of the plotted curve, the colored tiles with black boarders corresponding to the inflection point (tangent) on the curve (USGS, 2011; McGraw, 2013). Such variations in the Earth's none uniform magnetic field, making it difficult to inspect historic chart for geospatial accuracy premised only on magnetic bearing values, less one has in possession a historical knowledge of the magnetic deviation values for the region of concern. The ability to correctly predict past magnetic deviations predicted from values measured today having marginal accuracy, the accuracy of heuristically calculated magnetic deviation values waning the further back in time one attempts to determine.

     ^{[83x4]
     [83x5]}

     This regenerative map image and one that does not necessary indicate that Taiwan is a province of mainland China as this map also includes regions of Korea and Japan, both lands understood by Chinese rulers to be independent and sovereign nations. The island of Hainan being the most southern island land mass represented on the Martini map. The compressed distance between mainland China to Okinawa perhaps a function of not yet having a maritime chronometer along with reduced westward travel times relative to eastward travel times do to natural environmental effects. The sailing time from Okinawa to China benefiting from prevailing winds as they move in general from east to west near those latitudes.^[83y] The irony surrounding this particular map produced by Martini and others to include the ca. 1389, Da Ming Hun Yi Tu map and representing a less difficult region of China for humans to access as these maps are premised about terrain, in relation to China's current and yet to be qualified "historical" claims to the maritime region of the South and East China Sea, is that from at least the Ming Dynasty, China had not yet fully determined the correct cartographic points of origin (headwaters) for China's three largest rivers. Such map painting, exposing a fundamental lack of local geographic awareness for the western regions held by Chinese rulers, the origins of these rivers remaining unresolved until the 19^th century.^[83z]

     The earliest understood map to have Taiwan properly rendered being the ca. 1608-1625 Selden Map (Fig. 52).^[83z1] Peculiar to this map and perhaps the first known example contemporaneous with the early 17^th century, presuming that this map was produced by a Chinese cartographer for maritime use and not simply a map composed in Chinese (early Guangzhou souvenir), is the incorporating of a European style, compass rose near top center (Fig. 53). This compass rose being inappropriate for a maritime chart if not unorthodox having 24 segments representing Èrshísì Jiéqì 二十四節氣^[xxx] (24 Seasonal Nodes) in 15^o degree longitude intervals (Tiquia, 2012)^[83z2] rather than 36 or 18 segments for 360^o degrees. A traditional Chinese compass and still used today for fēngshuǐ 风水^[83z3] (feng shui) being a south pointing device, not a north pointing device.^[83z4] Hence, the traditional Chinese compass is not fashioned for maritime use, having the characters for the cardinal directions placed in reverse order and direction.^[83z5] A fengshui compass placing zi 子^[83z6] (child, representing south) and not běi 北^[83z7] (north) at top rather than being located at rose bottom and standard maritime configuration, along with wu 牛^[83z8] (oxen, representing north) in place of the standard Chinese cardinal direction nán 南^[83z9] (south) at rose bottom, instead of at the top as is the case with a standard fengshui compass rose and opposite to that seen with the Selden map's, partially maritime centric, feng shui compass rose. The excessive use of mountain glyphs in central and northern areas composed of large plains along with the peculiar and conjoining paths for China's two major rivers, irrespective of canals, suggesting that the cartographer(s) had a basic lack of familiarity for central China and that the map was produced perhaps, outside of central and northern China, near the Canton (Guangdong) area.^[83z10]

      ^{[84] [84a]}

(Fig. 51, upper left) Photo of the ca. 1540 map painting of China revealing Jeju Do 濟州 (Jeju Island) or (Quelpart)[85] off the Korean peninsula, eastern Honshu 本州, Shikoku 四国 and Kyushu 九州 Islands of Japan, Okinawa Hontō 沖縄本島 (Okinawa, Main Island), Yaeyama Shotō 八重山諸島 (Yaeyama Islands), Sakishima Shotō 尖閣群島 (Sakishima Islands) and the island of Taiwan 臺灣 (Formosa) by Italian Jesuit missionary and possible astronomer, he being seating in the painting in front of an armillary like, skeletal globe with encompassing zodiac, Martino Martini, also known as (衛匡國) Wèi Kuāngguó. This critical map being one of the first known iterations to be rendered in traditional, Song Dynasty like Chinese cartographic style, that illustrates both the islands of Taiwan and Okinawa along with the western shoreline of Běibù wān 北部湾 or Vịnh Bắc Bộ (Gulf of Tonkin) with a fair degree of spatial and placement accuracy. The Japanese archipelago being off in azimuthal bearing relative to Taiwan by about -10o degrees in longitude, such being close to the magnetic declination error for Japan today (~8o),[85a] a strong correlation suggesting that the charting data used to produce the map had been provided by maritime instruments and methodology. The science of magnetic fields and magnetic declination error values not yet fully determined, plotted and or understood at the time of the maps creation. In addition, the map includes the Sông Hồng, known to the Chinese upriver as the Hồng Hà 紅河 or Yuán Jiāng 元江, (Red River) delta region near the modern day Vietnamese city of Hai Phong. Martino Martini, in this painting, pointing to the western terminus of the Great Walls intersecting the Yellow River.[86] The two small lakes that are shown to exist in western China, near the origin of the Yellow River, suggesting that the Níngxià Píngyuán 寧夏平原 (Ningxia Plain) and location for the modern day city of Yinchuan along with the Hé Tào Píngyuán 河套平原 (Hetao Plain) and location for the modern day city of Bayannur 巴彦淖尔市 were once flooded plains. (Fig. 52, upper right) Enhanced photo of the ca. 1606-1624, Chinese made Selden Map or Dōng Xīyáng Hánghǎi Tú 東西洋航海圖 (Western, Maritime Chart of the Orient)[86a] at the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford. This map and bequeathed by John Selden in 1659[86a1] being noted for having Taiwan illustrated though probably the product of information provided by Europeans as the indicated sea lanes bisect the Southern China Sea rather than shoreline hopping. In addition, the absolute bearing[86a2] between the northern tip of Sumatra and the Kra Isthmus region along with the relationship between Borneo with Luzon, and Taiwan with respects to Kyushu, suggesting the presences of compass generated, magnetic declination error values for the region. The level of detail and spatial accuracy illustrated in the Indonesian archipelago appearing to have been inspired by the coordinate based (ca. 1584) map (Fig. 57) produced by the Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci and his Yudi Shanhai Quantu 舆地山海全图 (Complete Map of Mountains and Sea Geography).[86a3] [86a4] (Fig. 53, below) Illustration series comparing a converging from center, maritime compass rose (far left) and segmented into 360o degrees, to that of a diverging from center Chinese fengshui compass rose (left of center) segmented into 24 sectors representing not 24 hours in a day, rather the 24 seasonal nodes in a year, to the diverging compass rose rendered on the Selden map (right of center) with the 24 fengshui characters in reverse order, to a converging Chinese compass rose printed on the 1885 map, Dà qīng niàn sānshěng yǔ de quán tú 圖全地與省三廿清大[xxx] (Da Qing Nian San Sheng Yu De Quan Tu)(Library of Congress, 1903; adapted, McGraw, 2016)[86a5] that is navigation in style, the four standard, Chinese cardinal directions, běi 北 (north), nán 南 (south), dōng 東 (east) and xī 西 (west)[86a6] being in close concurrence with European style cartography. The illustrator and compulsively perhaps, giving preference to an upright 南 (south), with 北 (north) being inverted (upside down). In the upper right corner is the character hǎi 海[86a7] (sea).

^{[86b], [86b1], [86b2], [86b3]}

     The late 16^th c. map titled Insullae Moluc (Fig. 56) by the Flemish cartographer and co founder of the Dutch East India Company, Petrus Plancius, dated 1592 being one of the first maritime maps to implement Mercator projection,^[86c] and as such, one of the earliest nautical chart with reasonable accuracy of the entire South West Pacific region to include the majority of the principle islands in the Indonesian archipelago spanning as far east as the Salomonis (Solomon) Islands. The coral reefs and shoals of the noted Paracel region (upper left) of the South China Sea, just south (below) of Hainan Island being indicated on this early nautical map as partially submerged features and zone of maritime danger, rather than substantive land masses thus notable island groups. The width distorted Island of Palawan noted in red, labeled Calamianei, which at the time of the maps rendering understood by maritime European nations as being a declared dominion of Spain. Today the Calamiane Island group being part to the Philippine Republic, and the lesser island collection situated at the northern tip of much larger Island of Palawan.^[86d] The Mariana Island group (upper right center), to include the Island of Guam (Thief Islands) labeled Archipe Lagus S. Lazari.^[86e]

     ^[86e1]

(Fig. 54, above) Photo of a colored, 1593 printing of Tertiae Partis Asiae quae modernis India orientalis dicitur acurata delineatio Autore Iacobo Castaldo Pedemontano by De Jode as published in De Jode's Speculum Orbis Terrarum in 1578. This map being a further study of the first two of four sections of a map set produced by Giacomo Gastaldi's by 1561 of Southeast Asia, China and India.[86e2] The map by Giacomo Gastaldi inspiring the general nature of Asiae Nova Descriptio (Asia, New Description) produced in 1570 by Abraham Ortelius. Note how regions north of the Great Wall to include the northern shores of Bo Sea were considered at that time as being outside of China's political domain. In particular, regions occupied by barbarians, the understanding of such being designated to the maritime region extending to Japan and Korea with what is today the Yellow Sea, on the De Jode and Giacomo Gastaldi's map, being titled the Mare de Mangi, the word mangi or mánzi 蠻子[86e3] being a colloquial term used during the Song Dynasty as a reference to barbarians (Marco Polo, xxxx).[86e4] The Àomén dǎo 澳門島[86e5] (Macau Island) and today a peninsula in the Zhūjiāng sānjiǎozhōu 珠江三角洲[86e6] (Zhu San Jiao Zhou)(Delta do Rio das Pérolas or Pearl River Delta)[86e7] already indicated by the mid 16th century to be a separate polity. (Fig. 55, below) Slightly enhanced photo of the map Asiae Nova Descriptio (Asia, New Description) produced in 1570 by Abraham Ortelius (Hong Kong University; adapted, McGraw, 2016).[86e8] The map in the upper right referring to the last notable city in China as Quinsat, today the city of Beijing (Marco Polo, xxxx).[86e9] The Bo Sea is shown in reduced scale, the Korean Peninsula is missing along with Jeju Island, the northern most island of Japan, Hokkaido Island, is also omitted along with no indication as to there being an awareness of Sakhalin Island. The green land mass at map's edge just below 30o degrees north latitude being an unknown. The greater portion of the inhabitable islands of the Ryukyu Archipelago is represented including Formosa. In the lower right corner with the detached pink mass below Nova Gvinea (New Guinea), being Terrae Incogtae Avstralis Pars (Part of Hidden Australia).[xxx]

     ^[86f]

(Fig. 56, below) Photo of the ca. 1592 map titled Insullae Moluc by the Flemish Petrus Plancius and first to introduce Mercator projection method for nautical map (xxxx, xxxx).[86f1] This chart spanning from the Straits of Malacca at left to Nova Guinea (New Guinea) at right to Taiwan at top left being one of the first to maps to be inclusive of Java Sea, Makassar Strait, Flores Sea, Sulu Sea, Celebes Sea, Molucca Sea, Banda Sea, Halmahera Sea, Ceram Sea, Timor Sea, Arafura Sea, Bismarck Sea and Solomon Sea.[86f2] This map misrepresenting the island of Taiwan as three separate land masses, and most like being confused for the Penghu Archipelago (Pescadores) also known as San Fo Qi (三佛齊) or Three Buddha Together.

     ^[86f3]

     The Insullae Moluc showing the lands surrounding the Pearl River delta (top left), today the region surrounding Hong Kong Island, Macau and Guangzhou (Canton)^[86g] and indicated with a yellow boarder, represented as a separate political region from the rest of China, at this time still the Ming Dynasty and marked with a green boarder. The Tonkin Gulf area of the South China Sea, today bordered by the nation of Vietnam,^[86h] being indicated on this 1592 map as an area outside of Chinese political control and labeled Hiu Nan Reg., in addition inclusive of the far eastern segment of the Himalayan Mountains.

     The first edition (ca. 1584) Yú dì shānhǎi quán tú 圖全海山地舆 or [left to right] 舆地山海全圖 (Yu Di Shan Hai Quan Tu) or Complete Map of Mountains and Sea Geography (Fig. 57a) and first Chinese world map to be coordinate based, in addition to rendering areas extensively beyond Hainan Dao 海南島 (Hainan Island) being produced by the visiting Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci. This map by Matteo Ricci, perhaps the first Chinese map to indicate the presence of sub arctic areas, extending from the Hēilóng jiāng 黑龍江^[xxx] (Heilong Jiang, Black Dragon River) or Amur River, near 52^o degrees north, showing Bolshoy Shantar with the Shantar Island group of the Uda Gulf in the Sea of Okhotsk along with portions of the Siberian coastline to possibly near 60 ^o degrees north to what is today Khabarovsk Krai, Russia and perhaps reaching the mouth of the Ulya River or further the Okhota River.^[xxx] The map not inclusive of the furthest north member of the Chinese centric "first island chain", Sakhalin Island and Kamchatka Peninsula. The distance between north eastern Asia and North America excessively brief, with the last significant inlet rendered on North America, near 48^o degrees probably representing the Strait of San Juan de Fuca.^[xxx]

     ^[87]

(Fig. 57a, above) Contrast enhanced photo of the ca. 1584 Yú dì shānhǎi quán tú 圖全海山地舆 or [right to left] 舆地山海全圖[88] (Yu Di Shan Hai Quan Tu) or Complete Map of Mountains and Sea Geography map by the Jesuit Priest Matteo Ricci (Harley, Woodward, and Harvard University, 1994; adapted, McGraw, 2013).[89] (Fig. 57b, below) Mosaic (two piece) photo of the six plate, ca. 1602 Kūn yú wànguó quán tú 圖全國萬輿坤 or [right to left] 坤輿萬國全圖[xxx] (Kun Yu Wan Guo Quan Tu) and second rendition of Matteo Ricci's world map (Library of Congress; adapted, McGraw, 2016).[xxx]

     ^[xxx]

     Irrespective of the coastal trade activity that had been occurring in the South China Seas, the water segments of the trade routes being littoral in nature and supported by the dearth of significant shipwrecks in the central regions of the South China Sea west of Palawan (Wade, 2003)^[93a] beyond a few vessels of non Chinese build and construction which may very well have steered off course, eventually loosing seaworthiness during stormy conditions and or striking a reef, that the Chinese prior to the Yudi Shanhai world map produced by Matteo Ricci, had not yet become aware that the southern islands composing the archipelagoes of Indonesian and Philippine Islands were indeed large and expansive islands and not simply small frontal islands such as those typically found along the Asian continental shelf and about the perimeter of China's eastern coastline with the Pacific Ocean. That from the time of the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu, China had not grasping the magnitude and scale of the large island masses of Sumatra, Java and Borneo. The Chinese per their cartography, perceiving these lands to be trivial in size, thus illustrated on Song - Ming Dynasty maps as being vastly smaller in scale relative to Hainan Island. The Chinese receiving secondary reports as the scale of these land masses through non quantified studies. Such fundamental lack of cartographical knowledge for the South China Sea region and vast array of large archipelagoes until the late Ming Dynasty with the sharing of maritime knowledge from arriving Europeans, supporting the position that China historical lacked awareness of the Australian continent.

     The ca. 1726 Dutch map produced by Francois Valentyn and premised upon information collected by voyages that took place from 1642-1644, known as Kaart der Reyae van Abel Tasman (Fig. 59b)^[93b] being one of the oldest known map that renders the west and north west coast of Australia, labeled Nova Hollandia, south coast of Tasmania labeled van Diemens Land, western New Zealand, labeled N. Zeeland and Staaten Land and the Solomon Islands. The western portion, northern and eastern coastline of the Island of Papua New Guinea, and labeled Nova Guinea thought at the time to be a component of Australia. Recent discoveries of Portuguese maritime documents, with a small rendering of a kangaroo like animal, offering competing evidence to suggest that the Portuguese may have discovered though not chart Australia, prior to Dutch efforts (xxxx, xxxx).^[94] The 1570 map by Abraham Ortelius titled Asiae Nova Descriptio (Asia, New Description) having a land mass labeled Terrae Incogtae Avstralis Pars (Part of Hidden Australia).

     ^[103]

(Fig. 58, above) Photo of Levinus Hulsius (ca. 1602) map of the East Indi's.[104] This map, right of center and bottom, being one of the first to illustrate the northern tip of Western Australia near the present day city of Darwin along with the Timor Sea.[104a] The headwaters of the Cantao (Pearl), Liampo (Yangtze) and Tiachio (Yellow) Rivers yet to be correctly determined, the map illustrating the rivers as radiating from a lake (right of center, near top) near Linquou, with a large centrally placed island, the lake feed by two rivers from the west. This lake and island perhaps representing the modern day city of Yinchuan in the Ningxia Plain and capital of the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region.[104b] The present day city of Beijing placed north of Bohai (Bo Sea) near the map's northern edge, labeled as the city of Quinsay (Marco Polo, 1276).[104c] The region between the Shandong Peninsula and Yangzi delta being compressed the length of the shoreline fronting the Yellow Sea, the Korean Peninsula forming a long vertical (longitude) divide. (Fig. 59a, below) Photo of the 1599, Mercator projection map by Edward Wright and Emery Molyneux of England titled Chart of the World (xxxx, xxxx)[xxx] and early mapping of Western Australia (Nova Hollandia) and Van Diemen's Land (Island of Tasmania).[xxx] This map leading to the (Fig. 59b, bottom) creation of the ca. 1726 map, Kaart der Reyae van Abel Tasman produced by the Dutchman Francois Valentyn, generated from additional information collected on voyages occurring from 1642-1644, (xxxx, xxxx)[92] and one of the oldest known maps to chart large portions of the Australian and the New Zealand coast lines. The Chinese, with the arrival of European's, obtaining for the first time, maps of Australia and awareness of New Zealand.

     ^{[xxx]
     [93]}

     The growing understanding in Europe that China did not have political control of the South Pacific region to include all of the Spice Islands, from the Philippines, to the Straits of Malacca to the Celebes and Malacca Seas to include maritime regions further south such as the Austral pacific zone to encompassing New Zealand, only advancing and accelerating European colonization and trade for the area. The Europeans expediting the accumulation of knowledge for what they deemed terra nullius domains, for the purpose of securing control of the region from geographically non-aware Asian nations such as Siam, China and Japan.

     The (ca. 1598) map titled "Asia" by Zacharias Heyns (Fig. 60) and produced with additional information probably not available to Ricci while residing in China, having a less accurate rendering of the Korean Peninsula. The map rendering the greatly extended Korean Peninsula in a manner that suggest a merging with of Sakhalin Island and Kamchatka Peninsula, remaining void of any knowledge of Sakhalin as a single land mass. The beginning of convoluted renderings, those generated from the errant merging of the Korean Peninsula with Sakhalin Island and Kamchatka Peninsula or Sakhalin Island with just Kamchatka Peninsula commencing from near the 17^th century with maps such as "Atlantis Insula" by Nicholas Sanson (ca. 1670)(Fig. 61)^[95] being an example. Other mergers of land and island of a similar nature being the merging Hokkaido with the Asian continent as seen on the 1682 map by Giacomo Cantelli and Giovanni Giacomo de Rossi (Fig. 73) titled, Il regno della China detto presentemente Catay e Mangin diuiso sopra le carte piu esatte nelle sue principali prouincie (The Kingdom of China, presently called Cathay and Mangin, divided into its principal provinces on a most precise map), (Hong Kong University)^[96] and the 1752 map by D'Anville (Fig. 77) titled d'Asie la Chine Tartarie Borneo Philippines Japon map.^[96]

     It being hypothetically possible that such connecting land masses indicated on the various charts, which could be easily interpreted to be cartographic errors premised about simple lack of awareness, human error or location awareness limits associated with the style of navigation, were the coincidental, by chance product of temporary climate and resulting salinity variations in the region effecting water temperature, to include the Sea of Japan and Sea of Okhotsk^[xx] that persisted on a centennial time scale with the age of maritime discovery. Nautical travelers seeking passage through what is today the Tsugaru (Honshu and Hokkaido) and La Perouse (Hokkaido and Sakhalin Island) Straits^[xx] perhaps being seasonally impeded by large ice fields and or ice dams. The mountainous nature of these repeating if not multiyear ice formations and resulting non navigable domains, perhaps giving the visual perception to passing vessel captains that beneath the masking ice could be solid land. Hence the rendering of maritime areas known from the late 18^th century to be navigable waters that from the late 15^th century until the early to mid 17^th century were seasonally composed of expansive fields of sea ice, the accumulated ice restricting passage through the narrow divides, the maps rendering what was seen at the time of reporting.

     ^[xx]
     [96]

(Fig. 60, upper) Photo of Zacharias Heyns (ca. 1598) map titled "Asia".[xx] ... (Fig. 61, above) Photo of the map Atlantis Insula, 1670 by Nicholas Sanson.[97] This map, and typical representation of the region, being an example of the yet charted Sakhalin Island as being understood and until latter times, as being a single land mass, attached to Kamchatka Peninsula. The Chinese at this time, yet to map Sakhalin Island, nor have political control of the region and inhabitants. (Fig. 62, below) Photo of the (ca. 1602) 3rd of Matteo Ricci's Chinese World Map. This color product being an 18th century Japanese facsimile.[98]

     ^[99]

     The regressive Chinese produced (ca. 1602) Shanhai Yudi Quantu 山海輿地全圖 (Complete Illustrated Geography of Mountains and Seas)(Fig. 63) map by Wong Qi 王圻 and Wang Siyi 王思義 printed in Sancai Tuhui 三才圖會 (Illustrated Collection of Three Powers) in 1607^[100] and more than likely inspired by the (ca. 1602) third edition of Matteo Ricci's Chinese World Map (Fig. 62) being generally non descript past Hainan Dao 海南島 (Hainan Island).

     ^[101]

(Fig. 63, above) Photo of the regressive Chinese produced (ca. 1602) Shānhǎi yú dì quán tú 山海輿地全圖 (Shan Hai Yu di Quan Tu)(Complete Illustrated Geography of Mountains and Seas) map by Wong Qi 王圻 and Wang Siyi 王思義 printed in Sancai Tuhui 三才圖會 (Illustrated Collection of Three Powers) in 1607.[102] (Fig. 64, below) Contrast enhanced photo of the East Indies by Thomas Kitchen of London, produced in 1770 (National Library of Australia; adapted, McGraw 2016).[103]

     ^[104]

     The rendering of the "first island chain", and still void of any awareness to Sakhalin Island, having the remaining islands in the "first island chain" being drawn as non titled, simple circular representations with no shared indication of Chinese administrative claims. The map's acknowledging of various far reach maritime islands in the Taiping Yang 太平洋 (Pacific Ocean), and presumably representations of the Philippine and Indonesian Archipelago, in addition to being incorrectly placed and spatially represented, conspicuously void of labels, but more important, regions in maritime space that are beyond the domain of Chinese political administration.

     Some of the earliest European cartographic productions to give a fair representation as to the true location and content of the "first island chain" being the "Southeast Asia, China & India" map by Levinus Hulsius (ca. 1602)(Fig. 58),^[105] and Jodocus Hondius 1606 map titled "China" (Fig. 65).^[106] The Cluverius and Hulsius map indicating that only the islands immediately offshore from China as being the proper of China. In addition, both the Hulsius and Hondius nautically centric maps clearly indicate the diminutive Yaeyama Shoto 八重山諸島 (Yaeyama Islands), south east of the even smaller and appearing non indicated Senkaku Shoto 尖閣群島 (Senkaku Islands) as maritime domains beyond the political control of China.

     ^[107]

(Fig. 65, above) Photo of Jodocus Hondius, map titled China (ca. 1606)(xxxx, xxxx).[108] (Fig. 66, below) Photo of Philip Cluverius 1650 map titled Imperii Sinarum Nova Descriptio (xxxx, xxxx).[108a]

     ^[108b]

     A very important highlight feature present on both the Hondius and Hulsius maps, is the consistent rendering of the Paracel or Xisha (西沙)^[108c] region in the South China Sea as a collection of submerged reefs and marginal atolls as appose to being valid and permanent maritime land masses which can be seen to naturally and perpetually rise above maximum local storm surge tidal levels. A legitimate, non man made maritime land mass, being one which rises in vertical profile greater than the natural difference in tidal height along with seasonal changes in ocean surface elevation (Fig. 67), for all weather states, hence in possession of an "all conditions coastline". For that reason, the Paracel region being nautically represented minus the additional artistic element of perimeter shading to note the non presence of a perpetual costal tidal zone, and consistent marking method utilized on both maps to note the existence of "high seas" gonghai (公海),^[108d] and all legitimate islands and coastlines.

The 1785 Edo Jidai 江戸時代 (Edo Period)(1603-1868) Japan, Dai Shin Koyozu 大清広輿図 (Enlarged Illustration of the Great Qing) map (Fig. 27) and an evolution of Yushu Jingtian Hedi Zhi Tu (Map of China with Latitude and Longitude and Scale) by Zhang Youyi 章有義 in Tianjing Huowen 天星回問 (Question and Answers on Astronomy) publish in China (ca. 1672) later reproduced in Japan (1730) being non inclusive of Taiwan 臺灣 (Formosa) or noting any archipelago and or maritime realm beyond Hainan Dao 海南島 (Hainan Island) as being part of China's sovereign domain.

    ^[108]

(Fig. 27) Photo of the 1785 Edo Jidai 江戸時代 (Edo Period)(1603-1868) Japan, Dai Shin Koyozu 大清広輿図 (Enlarged Illustration of the Great Qing) map.[109]

The "relinquishing" of Sakhalin Island to Russia, occurring at the Convention of Peking and signed 18 October 1860, and act which also ratified the Treaty of Tienstin (1858), remaining suspect in terms of legitimate Chinese control and administration. For the nature of the occupants, to the historical non cartographic integration of the territory, Sakhalin remaining non recognized on all but the most contemporaneous official Qing Chao 清朝 (Qing Dynasty) maps, to having not ever showing from historical writings to be within and or part of the continuous Chinese political domain, highly suspect in terms of actually having "title".

The entire "transaction" and political gains achieved by Prince Kung 恭親王 (Yixin) relative to Sakhalin Island peculiarly more reminiscent of an opportunistic act of deception performed by China. The end results being China receiving misplaced benefit for yielding lands for which China never demonstrated with much clarity as to having ever been in Chinese control, nonetheless having competent indigenous knowledge of the Sakhalin Island coast, and supportive indication as to having definable claims upon a geographic region.

The ca. 1897 map of Qing Chao 清朝 (Qing Dynasty) by Reverend Thomas Milner in his book "Gallery of Geography" titled "Eighteen Provinces, China Proper" (Fig. 28) being non inclusive of Taiwan 臺灣 (Formosa) or any other archipelagoes and or maritime realm beyond Hainan Dao 海南島 (Hainan Island) as being part of China's sovereign domain.