¹¹⁵

     ¹²³

         ^[43]

      ^{[48] [49]}

     ^[57]

     Vietnam's Cà Mau Peninsula, a large portion of which representing the Mekong River delta or the Méigōng hé 湄公河 up stream,^[46l] per the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu being composed of a large detached land mass that was discrete from the greater peninsula region. This water passage and perhaps a natural canal for half the distance, being what may have been a former inland sea route that operated between the southwest Vietnamese city of Rạch Giá on the eastern shores of the Gulf of Thailand, to the southeast side of the peninsula and shoreline, leading to the South China Sea near the Vietnamese city of Bạc Liêu.^[46m]

     The two maps being void of a properly placed and rendered island of Sumatra, Java, Borneo and Philippine archipelago (Figs. 16, 17). It being possible that the rudimentary rendering of the island pair forming an archipelago in the southeast section of the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu and directly below what would be the Malay Peninsula (Strait of Malacca)^[46h] and southwest of the southern tip of Vietnam's Cà Mau Peninsula,^[46i] is an over simplified representation of Sumatra Island and the Sungai Kampar River along with the nearby island group composed of Pulau Bengkalis, Pulau Pedang, Pulau Tebingtinggi and Pulau Rangsang^[46j] represented as a single land mass.^[46k] The width of the Strait of Malacca in the vicinity of modern day city of Singapore, or essentially the latitude distance between the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula to the Island of Sumatra being rendered on the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu as being equivalent to the latitude distance between the Shāndōng Peninsula on the east coast on China to the opening of the Yangzì River or Cháng Jiāng 長江 near the city of modern day Shànghǎi. A cursory and contrived plotting that was perhaps and not out of the ordinary, the product of the cartographer's own desire for completeness, thus the lack of spatial accuracy. The grossly imprecise mass of islands having been drawn by word of mouth and non quantified information beyond simple days of travel shared by local mariners, as appose to the Chinese having actually sailed to these destinations, leading to greater cartographic accuracy.

     This same collection of islands Sumatra, Pulau Bengkalis, Pulau Pedang, Pulau Tebingtinggi and Pulau Rangsang being represented as a pair of islands on the Korean produced Honil Gangni Yeokdae Gukdo Ji Do the archipelago being place south of Vietnam's Cà Mau Peninsula with the Malay peninsula being completely omitted. Both the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu and Honil Gangni Yeokdae Gukdo Ji Do giving indications that the principle city for the ancient kingdom of Srivijaya on the island of Sumatra and a center for Buddhist teachings during the 8^th century, may not have been Palembang, South Sumatra Provence as claimed by some (Hirth, 1888; Coedès, 1918) but rather Muaro Jambi Regency in Jambi Provence (Agus, 2013).^[xxx] In addition, the large flood plain region in the upper delta area of the Irrawaddy (Ayeyarwady) River in Myanmar or Irrawaddy Division^[46n] may have been a collection of large open bodies of water on the order of shallow, pond like lakes. The Da Ming Hun Yi Tu and Honil Gangni Yeokdae Gukdo Ji Do maps representing the low lying area prior British alteration. The upper delta region having been drained and dyked starting from the 1860's, seized by the British after the Second Anglo-Burmese War of 1852, becoming part of British Burma.^[46o] The centrally placed dot illustrated in the upper portions of the peninsula located body of water and noted on the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu and Honil Gangni Yeokdae Gukdo Ji Do though larger on the Korean map, being the isolated 4,981' ft (1,518 m) peak of Mount Popa.^[46p] The maps indicating that what is today Mount Popa National Park in Myanmar and pilgrimage site for Buddhist, at the time of the maps creation, was a discrete island situated in a lake.

     Such charting deviation in the Joseon from the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu relative to the southern archipelago, perhaps the result of cartographers in Korea not having a physical copy of the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu, the information provided and rendered being second hand content having been extracted from a Japanese produced and shared facsimile.^[46q]

     ^[49a]

     ^[49a1]

      Complicating the usefulness of these maps and their misrepresentation of the maritime area south of Hainan Dao 海南島 (Hainan Island) and the Ryukyu Shoto 琉球諸島 (Ryukyu Archipelago), is the incorrect placement and representation of the predominate archipelagoes located further south in the South China Sea region such as the Philippines, Borneo to include present day Indonesia. In addition, the three maps being non-coordinate based (compass bearing predicated), are unqualified spatial renderings of the China Sea region. Overall, the Honil Gangni Yeokdae Gukdo Ji Do, Da Ming Hun Yi Tu along with the later produced 1726 official map of the Qing Cháo 清朝 (Qing Dynasty)(1644-1912)^[47] printed in Gujin Tushu Jicheng 古今圖書集成 and on the whole seaming to be nonchalant if not dismissive in nature relative to association, location and size of the various archipelagoes located in the China Seas along with the islands located in the northern regions of the South China Sea, the constant exception being the Island of Hainan, and likely related to limits associated with contemporaneous Chinese navigation and charting technology.

     The three maps, Honil Gangni Yeokdae Gukdo Ji Do 混一疆理歷代國都之圖 (Illustration of Included Lands and Regions of Historical Countries and Capitals), Da Ming Hun Yi Tu 大明混一圖 (Illustrated Copulation of the Great Ming), and the Gujin Tushu Jicheng 古今圖書集成 printed Qing Cháo 清朝 (Qing Dynasty), each map spanning the distance from the Sea of Japan along the eastern portion of the Korean Peninsula to the Brahmaputra and Ganges River Delta near the present day city of Chittagong in Bangladesh and situated on the northern arc of Bengal Bay^[58], in tandem with the minimally revealing open water segments of the cartographic content, being a strong indication that the ocean vessels and crews of the period and region tend not to venture more than 1-2 days sailing from any single land mass, the maritime traffic and trade being limited to littoral waters.

     The pictorial and non scaled map titled Hé hánghǎi tú 鄭和航海圖^[58a] and only known map to depict the entire route taken by Admiral Zheng He and his expedition fleet (Figs. 18-28), printed in the text Wǔ bei zhì, 武備志^[58b] (Wu bei zhi) and edited by Mao Yuán yí 袁懋毅^[58c] (1594-1640) in 1621 (Library of Congress)^[58d] demonstrating the littoral nature of the journey. The series of maps, starting from Nánjīng Shì 南京市 (Nanjing City) on the Yangtze River, indicating that the fleet remained within close proximity to large land masses. Each page pair of the map, their being 20 page pairs in all, having the presence of a continental like land mass on at least one side of the passing fleet and at times, both sides. The littoral nature of the map series, there being no periods of open (blue) water isolation, inferring that the navigation means used to chart the course was principally dead reckoning in style, the fleet not guided in general by celestial or compass based navigation.

     ^[58e]

         ^{[58j], [58j1]}

         ^{[58k], [58k1]}

         ^{[58l], [58l1]}

         ^{[58m], [58m1]}

         ^{[58n], [58n1]}

         ^{[58o], [58o1]}

         ^{[58p], [58p1]}

         ^{[58q], [58q1]}

         ^{[58r], [58r1]}

         ^{[58s], [58s1]}

     It being very probable as seen from the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu^[83n] and Korean Honil Gangni Yeokdae Gukdo Ji Do^[83o] that from at least the late 14^th century, items that were being shipped eastward from India and beyond aboard small (less than 200 tons) but heavily laden, slow moving vessels with a full crew of 15-20, such as a sambuk or junk, with final destinations east of the Malay peninsula did not always sail about the tip of the peninsula by way of the Malacca strait. That during seasons with few trade winds, time saving if not more safe to instead, portage their goods across the peninsula's Kra isthmus near modern day Ranong (western shore) over to Chumphon (eastern shore), easily traversing the Phuket Range (Fig. 29). The Kra isthmus, from at least the start of the 11^th century having being used as a trade route across the Malay peninsula (Skilling, 1997).^[83p] The route using the Kra River (Fig. 31) inlet in the Bay of Sawi on the west side of the isthmus and today forming part of the border between Myanmar and Thailand, transferring to the Hin wua (Hin River) then on the other side of the peninsula divide (Indo-Malay cordillera) to the Chumphon River, exiting into a circular bay ~5 km (~3 miles) in diameter, south of Chumphon City.^[83p1] The repositioning of Admiral Zheng He's expedition team from the eastern shore over to the western shore upon advancing, then opposite upon returning, requiring the crew to switch to difference vessels had they been nearly 400' ft (~125 m) in length and 3,000 tons in weight (Levathes, 1997),^[83p2] less they were able to portage or tow the crafts as well. The movement of Zheng He's fleet, from one facing shoreline of the Malay peninsula over to the other, via narrow and shallow rivers, giving way to the vessels not being extreme in dimensions.

     Thus a valid consideration that Chinese ship captains, beyond concerns for any residual ill will that might still have been present in the lower regions of the Malay peninsula, post the failed Mongol invasion of Java during the 13^th century, also sought to reduce interactions with members of the various negrito tribes (bands) that populated the lower half of the peninsula. (Fig. 30) Such course avoidance scenario being an effort to limit possible attacks and or pirating by negrito bands should the vessel and crew find it necessary to seek shelter in a small cove or bay, having become vulnerable during periods of less wind or from a passing storm, such rapidly changing weather conditions being frequent events in the tropics. The local negrito inhabitants of the Malay Peninsula and in particular the grown reclusive pygmy population, for the sake of their own safety and welfare, having developed a rightful and strong distrust of outsiders. The distrust and ensuing aggression stemming from many centuries of marauding Arab, Indian and other slavers that sought to capture and trade members of the negrito demographic. The 7^th century traveler Yijing reporting that there were many negrito slaves, some there perhaps originally from Khmer (Cambodia), laboring in southern China (Brandt, 1961).^[83p9] Prince Chao Nakon of Siam in 1388 offering in tribute to the Emperor of China along with 30 elephants, 60 foreign slaves (Grimm, 1961).^[83p10] The act of slavery in the Indo China region still in practice by the late 19^th century with a report in 1878 that the Rajah Muda of Songkhla (Singorra) retained negrito slaves. The negritos of the time, some shot while in the process of being captured then enslaved to be exploited, being relegated to sub-human classification (Brandt, 1961).^[83p11]

     ^{[83p3] [83p4]}

     ^[83r7]

     The building of large, multi thousand ton sea going vessels requiring the shipwrights in China to have access to sufficient sums of linear timber to produce large junks in volume, much like the exceptionally fine planks and mast that can be fashioned from massive conifers trees (pine, fir, spruce) leading to the construction of very tall sailing ships. Much like the great abundance of tall conifer trees that were native to the east and west coast of the United States, such plentiful resource not typical to the warm, coastal regions of China, leading to the large American ship building boom of the 18^th and 19^th century.^[83r8] The shipwrights not limited to the use of contorted, thus reduced length boards typical to hardwood trees in the tropics of southeast Asia and low lands of eastern China. A region of China that for thousands of years had already been deforested, the land cleared and converted for agrarian use.

     Not the least of which, the ports of call, they being small, were most likely not capable of or sufficient in scale to provide adequate stores for a ship and accompanying crew for vessels of such magnitude not the least have the capability to warehouse the perishable goods without rotting away. Such basic task being difficult today, even for modern navies as was the case prior to the Spanish American War, World War II and Vietnam War^[83r9] to being a challenging task for large cruise ships when they make port calls abroad.^[83r10] The personnel count on a cruise ship (crew and passengers) being trivial compared to the vast numbers of support personnel and crew needed to tend a large flotilla composed of 100's of ships.^[83r11] The basic, behind the scenes transportation and logistics systems onshore along with nation to nation coordination, during the 15^th century in southeast Asia, most likely not structured to provide a very large and single "just in time" replenishment service for the many tons of fruits, vegetables, meats and water stores. The seasonally dependent shore based replenishment capacity probably limited to just a few days to week's worth of provisions per large vessel (200+ crew).

     Another set of considerations for such a huge flotilla of large ships would have been the task of performing anchorage at sea or in harbor, to simple movement of a large vessel within a harbor. The ship captains and harbor masters not having available the use of small, self powered tug boats or towing vessel (Figs. 32-34) and very important 19^th century technological advancement that helped make large, unyielding, multi thousand ton vessels maneuverable within a harbor or along pier side for safe berthing and placement, practical.^[83r12] The first vessel to demonstrate the ability to tow another vessel and against the wind, occurring in March 1802 with the Scottish built steam powered paddle wheel vessel, the Charlotte Dundas (Brennus, 2001).^[83r13]

     ^{[83r14]
     [83r15]}

     ^[83r19]

     A 3,000 ton vessel with cargo (~4,000 ton), moving at a speed of 2 knots (kts), given 1 kts = 1.15 m/hr or 1.85 km/hr, producing huge translating forces upon contact, kinetic force (F_k) at that moment equal to [F_k = ¹/₂mv²] (m) being mass, (v) being velocity^[83r20] and coupled inertia upon impact with a stationary object (pier). The scalar multiplier values for a vessel with speeds of 0.5, 1, 2 and 4 kts being 0.25, 1, 4 and 16 times the mass of the moving vessel. It not always being possible to maneuver not the least retain positive control of such vessel should it be dependent upon using only tidal currents or batten sails that by design are not well suited for tacking upwind, or restricted to the limiting nature of mooring lines and rowboats. Since integrated, near waterline ores on any large vessel are not sufficient to rotate a large ship about. The typical wind powered vessel, without the aid of a tugboat, having a large and laborious turning radius.

     It being principally the invention of the steam powered tugboat and the newly gained ability by ship captains and harbor masters to carefully position or relocate without damage to vessel or infrastructure, large, heavy ships in tight quarters, the materials used for hull construction along with later advancements in propulsion design being secondary elements, that eventually permitted ships to greatly increase in scale. Thus, just 50 years post the 19^th century advent of the tugboat, the largest vessels had increased in dimension from ~250' ft in length and ~2000 dwt to ~350' ft in length and ~4,000 dwt.^[83r21]

     In addition to being able to coordinate the movements of large vessels within a harbor environment comes the necessity for each of the ports to have sufficient depth clearance to prevent the ships from grounding. This minimum draft requirement being a difficult specification to be meet for areas that have a naturally forming shallow sea floor grade, thus slowing encroaching upon terrain. Such being the case for much of Southeast Asia as the Sunda region of the Asian continental shelf (xxxx, xxxx)³⁵ reaches outward for many miles from the coastline (Fig. xx). The bathymetry of the South China Sea or the continental shelf being fairly shallow at 50m (~160' ft) or less (World Data System for Marine Environmental Sciences, Anderson, 2014).^xx This shallow sea floor region extending out many miles from shore, enveloping the Tonkin Gulf, continuing south to Ca Mao Peninsula (Vietnam) to include the entire circumference of the Gulf of Thailand reaching the tip of the Malay Peninsula. The nature of the seafloor in many areas of the tropics enhanced by shoreline protected by surf breaking, reef like structures resulting in the formation of shallow sandy bottoms extending out 100's of meters from shore.^[xx] A typical example of such sea floor morphology being the south facing shoreline of Oahu Island in Hawai`i.^[xx] In some areas of Eastern Asia, the high rate of silt discharge from the rivers such as the Yellow and Yangzi resulting in shallow deltas such as that off the coast of China near cities of Tianjin and Shanghai.^[xx] China, near the city of Shanghai, needing to construct a deep water port connected with a bridge extending out over the ocean for nearly 12 miles to obtain sufficient water depth for large container ships.^[xx]

     ^[xx]

     The ability to significantly dredge harbors to meet hull depth requirement, outside of the very limited Roman technique of using divers to physically remove sea bed on to human powered host with low mechanical leverage, not occurring till the late 19^th century with the advent of steam operated shovels and excavators.^[83r22] Given the vessel sizes said to have been used by Admiral Zheng He, from simple scaling, requiring at minimum ~15' ft (~4.6 m) draft and when laden with cargo and crew, perhaps greater than 20' ft (~6.1 m) of clearance at the dock or pier side (Fig. xx). The ready availability and placement of natural deep harbors with low tide depths of 20' or more, during the early Ming Dynasty in the Indo China region and neighboring areas, not known to have commonly existed.

     The Chinese maritime vessels during the time of the Ming Dynasty, Admiral Zheng He (鄭和), and typically known in Chinese as shanban 舢舨,^[59] (sampan) (Fig. 36) or by the Javanese jong,^[60] the word latter modified by the Portuguese to junco or junk[61] and when fitted with a batten sail (rig), a junk rig (xxxx, xxxx).^[62] Such vessel classification and independent of displacement weight, being premised about shallow (littoral) water, inland sea and river craft designs, incorporating a minimal draft and flat bottom (xxxx, xxxx).^[63] Such hull design approach and one very different from European designs that used a low slung keel matched to a raised weather deck, not handling well during high or choppy sea states. The typical junk rig capsizing and or sinking easily during storms due to excess rolling, pitching and heaving when amidst large waves, in addition to being prone to water inundation from a closer to water level weather deck. The contemporaneous junks produced by the Koreans for the Yuan Dynasty (Mongol)(1271-1368) invasion of Japan (xxxx, xxxx)^[64], sinking in marginally rough seas, the waters of the Sea of Japan, simply because of scale, not capable of reaching the magnitude in wave height frequently seen in the South China Seas.

     The mast and means for supporting the mast of the Chinese sampan being problematic to the proposed 300'-400' ft vessel sizes used by Admiral Zheng He. The Europeans incorporating smaller, multi piece sails that are more maneuverable, sails void of the additional mass of stiff or solid structural elements such that the all cloth sails in the presents of some wind can be stowed or unfurled.^[xxx] The European and Arab approach to main sail (non spinnaker) design being antithetical to that implemented on sampans. The small Chinese sampan incorporating bamboo battens (ribs) and single main sail on a short, singular mast, without extensive use of triangular shaped rigging and pulleys to support the mast and sail load. Such sail and mass design when scaled on the order of 100' or more in height and 50' in width or greater, impractical to host in place, weighing perhaps a couple thousand pounds when dry. The heavy Chinese sail needing to be raised into position, where as a much less heavy main, square sail on a European vessel is lowered into place from above, with lines controlling the shape of the sail. The Chinese not having developed robust or sophisticated rope rigging or pulley based tackle (Fig. xx) to gain mechanical leverage to counter the wind load produced by a large single sail, not the least able to resist the forces induced upon the mast as the vessels rolls from port to starboard and pitches fore and aft. Include the additional weight of water absorbed by the large single sail and bamboo battens used to retain the desired sail shape more than likely failing catastrophically in rough seas. The mast structure, given the rigging method used on small junks, when scaled to appropriate dimensions to propel a wind powered vessel with marginally streamline hull on the order of 300'-400' ft and several thousand tons in displacement, probably snapping in multi locations, the failed mast and sail perhaps causing adjacent masts to fail as well. The transfer of forces produced by tension in the triangular shaped, multi line rigging designs seen on European vessels, each rigging independently vectoring and distributing the forces, forming climbable ladder like structures to gain access to upper areas of the mast to host sails and tackle, not incorporated into the Chinese sampan.

     ^{[66], [66a] [67]}

     ^{[73c]
     [xxx]}

     The standard Chinese junk during the Ming Dynasty, unlike the European style naval architecture incorporated into Ferdinand Magellan's ship, the Nao Victoria (xxxx, xxxx)^[65] (Fig. 37), not well suited for transporting large stores of drinking water and food for the crew, needing to replenish frequently, remaining littoral. Records of the voyages lead by the courageous Admiral Zheng He (1405-1433), providing no clear or vague suggestion as to the occurrence of open water, bisecting travels resulting in crew isolation and many day's journey from land and replenishment destinations, either aft, port, starboard or ahead, and revealing indication of blue water voyages had they occurred. The modern recreation of Admiral Zheng He's vessel, with deep center line keel, more of a modern perversion to satisfy critics, the keel based junk being a later adaptation of yearly Arab dāw (dhow) and European (caravel) open water vessels. Thus, by the end of the 17^th century, it was the Europeans that had successfully sailed to China, with China yet to make a nautical voyage to Europe. The Indonesia borobudur ship (Fig. xx) and mid size (~60' feet) vessel hull style with line retained, non batten, cloth sail and in use from about the 8^th century, being a rough seas adaptation of the shallow draft, Muslim introduced dhow with some versions of the borobudur incorporating influences from outrigger canoes (xxxx, xxxx).^[xxx]

     The ... as seen in the fanciful artist rendering of ... (Fig. 39) ... ^[65a] .... A modern recreation of the (Fig. 40) ... ^[65b]

     ^{[xxx]
     [65c]}

     <sup>[65f]

[xxx], [xxx], [xxx], [xxx], [xxx]</sup>

     The navigation methods used on the voyages performed by Admiral Zheng He for many reasons, to include crew insecurities relative to obtaining future stores (food and fresh water) to the lack of precision navigational aids (Figs. 41, 42) in the form of cross and back staff, octant and chronometer as indicated by the various degrees of latitude (losing sight of the North Star (Plant, 1986)^[74], Polaris [α Ursa Minor](Burnham, 1973)^[75]) and longitude (timing errors) distortions rendered on maritime maps produced in China from the start of the 12^th century Nán Sòng Cháo 南宋朝 (Southern Song Dynasty)(1127-1279) to the mid Qing Cháo 清朝 (Qing Dynasty)(1644-1911), needing to be premised about simple compass and "dead reckoning" techniques. Dead reckoning navigation method for determining vessel bearing and heading, being reliant upon near continuous visual sighting of at minimum, two stationary masses (Crenshaw, 1974).^[75a] The Arab along with Indian navigators and introduced to China sometime during the 16^th century, using a kamal to ascertain latitude. The kamal being a sort of portable cross staff fashioned from of a simple square or rectangular board with a centrally place through hole, from which the vertically oriented and level board travels along a horizontally held string composed of graduated knots. Per the location of the board along the string, one can deduce the angle to an occulted object such as the North Star or distance to land given prior known as to the height of the object visible in the distance.^[76] The navigation value of such crude device as the kamal, being extremely limit while aboard a rocking vessel at sea.

     Compounding the difficulties of navigating in the South China Seas or any region of the Earth near tropical and equatorial regions (south of Topic of Cancer or Hong Kong) is that clouds frequently obscured the horizon,^[76a] masking at times the viewing of the North Star that is situated low on the horizon. Such astronomical limits inhibiting Chinese navigators to properly locate latitude using the North Star. In addition, there is no evidence to suggest Chinese navigators had access or knew how to use a mariner's astrolab (low wind resistance, skeletal frame) to aid in daytime navigation using the sun to help determine latitude. That it was not until the Qing Dynasty did Chinese mariners eventually have access to European invented and supplied optical devices such as the octant and sextant^[76b] or ephemeris. The positions in longitude being even more course as the Chinese did not have access to proper surface velocity (e.g. knots/hour) and time measuring devices that operated continuously from departure location or could be recalibrated during an extended maritime voyage,^[76c] in the form of precision clock or chronometer.^[76d]

     The lack of a sea worthy timing instrument of a precise and accurate nature (1^o degree in longitude corresponding to 60 nautical miles)^[76e] such as the "sea watch" or H4 chronometer (1759), the watch invented by John Harrison (1693-1776) of England,^[76f] inhibiting greatly the ability of Chinese and or other Asian junk captains from knowing the distance traveled in longitude on open waters, to which compounded in difficulty by needing to travel against prevailing ocean currents to travel eastward.^[76g] A replica of the H4 or the K1 being used by Captain Cook (1728-1779) for his transpacific voyage to the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii).^[76h] Thus the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu is highly distorted, the distortions growing in longitude with plotted distance and latitude as a function of not being able to sight the North Star.

     The Chinese appearing to have difficulty incorporating technology shared to them by Europeans, the analytically base techniques and resulting instrumentation being shun by imperial decry from the early half of the Ming Dynasty. The specific desire by Imperial China not to use and or incorporate, thus lean how to best implement such devices for everyday use to include commerce and maritime trade, being known to Europeans that reported even in the 19^th century that clocks and sun dials in China, as an act of spite, were intentionally configured not to indicate proper local time (xxxx, xxxx).^[76h1] The shunning of European provided technology being extended to maritime instruments such as the maritime compass and eventually the sextant. The proper uses of European designed astronomical instrumentation in China also straying from proper implementation and use as can be seen at the Běijīng Gǔ Guānxiàngtái 北京古觀象台^[76h2] (Beijing Astronomical Observatory) with the Chinese produced, European designed astronomical quadrant that is located on the observatory's roof top, observation deck (McGraw, 2006)(Fig. 42). The Beijing Observatory and elsewhere in China, during the Ming Dynasty not known for amassing or assembling for distribution to aid maritime navigation, printed ephemeris information sharing the expected rising and setting times of the Sun, Moon and various bright stars for specific, geo spatially determined locations on the Earth, such as that having been produced in London England (Royal Observatory Greenwich),^[76h3] Paris France (Observatoire de Paris)^[76h4] and at a later date, Washington D.C. in the United States of America (U.S. Naval Observatory).^[76h5]

     The quadrant's bilateral, centerline armature and principle line of sight (LOS),^[76h6] sighting staff with plumb line ring (counter weight) mounted at the front end of the staff, being errantly attached, placed 90^o degrees counter clock wise in rotation from normal assembly, relative to the instrument's elevation (hemispheric gear) and azimuth (vertical centerline) axis's, incorrectly pointing towards the west as oppose to pointing towards the north as it should be. The sighing staff, as assembled in the photo, when the instrument operator rotates the six spoke adjustment knob, simply resulting in the sighting staff to rotating (revolve) about the optical axis (line of sight) rather than increasing and decreasing in elevation. The quadrant as displayed oriented towards the user, away from the astronomical object of interest. For an analogy, if this instrument were a telescope, would have the front aperture pointed in the direction of the user rather than at the sky. When properly assembled and oriented, the curvature element of the instrument facing the object of interest, the entire instrument tilting from 0^o to 180^o degrees (horizon to horizon) to permit the tracking of a transiting object overhead, the plumb line (missing) dropping adjacent to the horizon bar (reference) to provide a visual perpendicular guide or orthogonal reference for the horizon bar. The plumb line primarily used when the instrument is being positioned to make the more difficult to sight measurements of objects placed higher than 45^o degrees in elevation. The instrument's, angularly adjustable horizon bar, to compensate for rotation of the Earth, needing to be constantly checked and correctly repositioned for each elevation angle sighting of the instrument. Such instrument working best with two operators one individual to sight the instrument in elevation and azimuth, the second operator to insure proper placement of the horizon reference for proper angle measurement and to note angle values.

^{[76i], [76j], [76k], [76k1], [76k2], [76k3], [76k4]}

^{[76s], [76t], [76t1], [76t2], [76t3], [76t4]}

     Given such location awareness limitations, Admiral Zheng He's fleet needed to remain within sight of or at most a day's travel or two of landmarks in the form of continental coastline to islands (e.g. locating food and water). Such means of nautical travel, from point A to B, being considered littoral (coastal) in nature and until the arrival of the late 14^th century European voyagers, the traditional navigation method used about the perimeter of large continental masses. The bold journey taken by Columbus bi-sected (traversed) the North Atlantic Ocean as appose to travelling about the perimeter from Ireland to Iceland to Greenland to Newfoundland and down the North American Atlantic coastline. Admiral Zheng He is not known for having bisected any large body of water from the South China Sea to the Indian Ocean, his journey consisting of a series of shoreline hopping excursions of a brief nature.

     The commercial trade and traffic (sea-lanes) to the Philippines at the time of Magellan, traversing (island hopping) by way of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Timor and the Celebes Sea rather than traversing the difficult to navigate in longitude and dangerous South China Sea. The Indonesian archipelago defining the southern rim of the Southern China Seas (Fig. 43). When Ferdinand Magellan was defeated in 1521 at the Battle of Mactan by Chief (Ci) Lapu-Lapu on Mactan Island and adjacent to Zebu Island of the Visayas group in the Philippines (Fig. 44), was known at the time by merchants, as there was no official "lingual Franco" for the region, that the South China Seas region was a neutral area. The only "common" language spoken in the Philippines Archipelago region of Zebu Island (Cebu) at the time of Magellan's arrival and most furthest north and east archipelago chain defining the eastern rim of the South China Sea region being an altered Malay dialect. Magellan successfully communicating to the indigenous Pilipino tribes via his personal Malay slave that understood the slightly altered Malay dialect (Pigafetta, 1519-1522).

     The tribal chiefs of the regions, per a Magellan voyage log not familiar with forms of communication using written language. Magellan impressing the local inhabitants by exhibiting writing skills (Pigafetta, 1519-1522)^[77] and from such may conclude that this region of the Philippines had not yet been exposed to Chinese text. In addition, the Chinese very likely never sailing or having knowledge of the even further eastward placed Mariana Islands, as the natives of Guam, the islands known by Spanish sailors as the Thief Islands, the natives early stealing a small skiff tied to the fantail of the Nao Victoria, being unaware of projectile based weapons premised about the bow to include cross bows. The people of Guam, per reports by Magellan's crew being astonished by the presence and use of bows and arrows and principle projectile based weapon carried by Ming Dynasty armies (xxxx, xxxx),^[78] while being repelled by the Spaniards during an act of aggression from the islanders of Guam (Pigafetta, 1519-1522).^[79]

     The few porcelain wares seen in the Philippines by Magellan and his crew and most likely would have been a significant discovery and factor against making sovereign claim of the island for Spain, had such not been the case, being void of any writing or Chinese hallmark. The wares seen by Magellan's crew more than likely the product of the Malay Peninsula and Vietnam region. The collection of vase examples in the slide below (Fig. 45)(McGraw et. al., 2013) and providing close up detail of Chinese hallmarks, at the time of Magellan's visit to the Philippines would have been contemporaneous with the Ming Dynasty. It being within character, had Chinese emissaries and officials visited the Philippines prior to Magellan's visit, to include the formulating of political relations such as establishing hierarchy would have had some control, thus nautical charting of the maritime trade routes that bisected the open waters between the two domains. It not being reasonable to presume that Chinese officials, those sent on an emissary visit to the Philippines, a journey that requires traversing a large body of dangerous water, would do so without prior knowledge as to how to reach their final destination.

     Had such interaction taken place from antiquity, thus enhancing Chinese claim to the region, spanning an extended timeline prior to western sharing of nautical charts, could also expect some evidence of imperial offerings if porcelain in nature, to have been older than Ming (明) Dynasty products, reaching back to perhaps the Song (宋) and Tang (唐) Dynasties or prior to Mongol (Yuan, 元) control.

      ^{[80] [81]}

     ^[83d]

     The tribal people of Palawan and more centrally located in the South China Sea, per Magellan's logs, being those ejected from Borneo for not being Muslim (Pigafetta, 1519-1522). The people of Palawan unaware of Chinese sailors or trade arrive direct from China, sharing no stories of direct Chinese trade. Trade on the island of Palawan being conducted with such far-reaching lands as Siam and Indian, by way of the south archipelagos, merchandize island hopping, not directly across the treacherous open waters of the South China Sea from mainland China. The furthest north trading port in the Philippines and second to Zebu relative to volume, being south of present day Manila on Luzon Island, from which inter coastal (littoral) trade via junk traffic took place only once a year to the southern islands. The products from Luzon being indigenous in nature and not representative of trade arriving direct from mainland China by way of the rough South China Seas. The open waters of the Luzon Strait being the roughest seas in the world (Lien, and Henyey, 2010; Mercier, 2013; Peacock, 2013).

     The annual trade schedule in the Philippines and elsewhere in the South China Seas such as along the coastlines of Vietnam and Borneo, being a function of seasonal wind patterns (Fig. 46). The general direction for the winds along the more protected, inner coastal water routs in the Philippines during the winter months being to the southwest in the direction of Borneo, the winds changing direct during the summer, flowing towards the northeast in the direction of Luzon (xxxx, xxxx).^[xxx] Near the Tonkin Gulf region, the winds in the winter tending to flow towards the southwest and parallel to much of the Chinese shoreline, the winds becoming north by northwest during the summer and onshore for most of south east China. Irrespective, the wind and ocean current directions and patterns from any part of China's southeast coastline and across to Taiwan are generally not in the direction of the open water regions of the South China Sea. The ocean surface currents, since they are dependent upon wind forces and direction being generally in agreement. Because of wind and ocean current directions along with the Chinese use of batten sails, such sails not well structured for tacking a vessel upwind, suggesting that travel across the South China Sea from the coast of China, towards the Philippines would have been difficult to accomplish, encouraging the use of other pathways.

     ^[xx]

     ^[83j2]

     ^[83k3]

     The presence of Chinese style vessels in the South China Sea such as junks, not in itself an implication that the vessels were operated by Chinese in much the same manner a large semi truck, one produced in a similar style and manner as that produced in North America, if located in South America, the general rule to good engineering practice being if it works don't change it less there be a strong and compelling reason to alter the design, not implying that the truck's operator is an North American driver. The duplicating of non protected technology being an act practice from the start of human history. Thus the discovery of a wrecked sambuk does not imply Arab or Indian crew nor would the wreck of a junk automatically imply a Chinese crew. The transferring of goods from one vessel to another vessel, as they travel between port to port, being the standard practice. Few items leaving China, even today, arriving on the same transport or means of transport upon arrival to their final destination whether it be North America or Europe. Jingdezhen ware porcelains produced in 14^th century China^[83l] if found in a ship wrecked junk like vessels in Java or Malaysia not an absolute that the crew was Chinese. For the logistical problems associated with the scores of languages and dialects that one would need to exercise just to ship Jingdezhen ware from China to Borneo or Bali, a voyage that could start from Hangzhou then to Canton, Champa and down the Malay Peninsula, across to Srivijaya then on to Borneo or Bali^[83m] that beyond the responsible agent or staff that might be on board to escort the goods, perhaps best performed and far more efficient and cost effective if the transport path was structured in a relay manner with a multitude of local vessels and local operators being in service, the goods and shipping agent(s) transfer to the next vessel. Case in point, my most recent trip to China, though scheduled as being on an American airline, in fact departing as a code share ride incorporating a Chinese airline and Chinese crew.

     What I believe to be the earliest known surviving Chinese style map (Fig. 51) to reasonably place and render Taiwan (Formosa), along with Sakishima Shotō 尖閣群島 (Sakishima Islands),^[83s] Yaeyama Shotō 八重山諸島 (Yaeyama Islands),^[83t] Okinawa Hontō 沖縄本島 (Okinawa, Main Island),^[83u] sections of Japan such as Kyushu, Shikoku, and Honshu along with the Island of Jeju Do also known as Dao Yi or Shima Ebisu (島夷) (Island of Barbarians) off the southern tip of the Korean Peninsula,^[83v] being a painting (secondary image, ca. 1540) of the original map produced by the visiting Italian Jesuit missionary Martino Martini and known in China as Wèi Kuāngguó (衛匡國).^[83w] This second order map incorporating traditional Chinese illustrating methods for portraying coastline features and rivers. The cartographic style remaining highly consistent with maps produced in China from at minimum the Sòng Dynasty, thus it is a non Mercator, non coordinate based in style, a map void of longitude and latitude lines. The map created by Martino, from the placement of the Japanese archipelago relative to Taiwan, providing some suggestion as to having been plotted in part from magnetic, compass bearing information. The placement of the Japanese archipelago being off in azimuthal bearing relative to Taiwan island by approximately -10^o degrees, such error corresponding well with the (~8^o) magnetic declination error value (Fig. 49) for that part of the world.^[83x] This map, and one of the first to express the majority of the islands spanning from Japan to Taiwan, most likely having been crafted from navigation data that was ascertained and provided to Martini by European mariners.

     ^[83x1]

     ^{[83x4]
     [83x5]}

     This regenerative map image and one that does not necessary indicate that Taiwan is a province of mainland China as this map also includes regions of Korea and Japan, both lands understood by Chinese rulers to be independent and sovereign nations. The island of Hainan being the most southern island land mass represented on the Martini map. The compressed distance between mainland China to Okinawa perhaps a function of not yet having a maritime chronometer along with reduced westward travel times relative to eastward travel times do to natural environmental effects. The sailing time from Okinawa to China benefiting from prevailing winds as they move in general from east to west near those latitudes.^[83y] The irony surrounding this particular map produced by Martini and others to include the ca. 1389, Da Ming Hun Yi Tu map and representing a less difficult region of China for humans to access as these maps are premised about terrain, in relation to China's current and yet to be qualified "historical" claims to the maritime region of the South and East China Sea, is that from at least the Ming Dynasty, China had not yet fully determined the correct cartographic points of origin (headwaters) for China's three largest rivers. Such map painting, exposing a fundamental lack of local geographic awareness for the western regions held by Chinese rulers, the origins of these rivers remaining unresolved until the 19^th century.^[83z]

     The earliest understood map to have Taiwan properly rendered being the ca. 1608-1625 Selden Map (Fig. 52).^[83z1] Peculiar to this map and perhaps the first known example contemporaneous with the early 17^th century, presuming that this map was produced by a Chinese cartographer for maritime use and not simply a map composed in Chinese (early Guangzhou souvenir), is the incorporating of a European style, compass rose near top center (Fig. 53). This compass rose being inappropriate for a maritime chart if not unorthodox having 24 segments representing Èrshísì Jiéqì 二十四節氣^[xxx] (24 Seasonal Nodes) in 15^o degree longitude intervals (Tiquia, 2012)^[83z2] rather than 36 or 18 segments for 360^o degrees. A traditional Chinese compass and still used today for fēngshuǐ 风水^[83z3] (feng shui) being a south pointing device, not a north pointing device.^[83z4] Hence, the traditional Chinese compass is not fashioned for maritime use, having the characters for the cardinal directions placed in reverse order and direction.^[83z5] A fengshui compass placing zi 子^[83z6] (child, representing south) and not běi 北^[83z7] (north) at top rather than being located at rose bottom and standard maritime configuration, along with wu 牛^[83z8] (oxen, representing north) in place of the standard Chinese cardinal direction nán 南^[83z9] (south) at rose bottom, instead of at the top as is the case with a standard fengshui compass rose and opposite to that seen with the Selden map's, partially maritime centric, feng shui compass rose. The excessive use of mountain glyphs in central and northern areas composed of large plains along with the peculiar and conjoining paths for China's two major rivers, irrespective of canals, suggesting that the cartographer(s) had a basic lack of familiarity for central China and that the map was produced perhaps, outside of central and northern China, near the Canton (Guangdong) area.^[83z10]

      ^{[84] [84a]}

^{[86b], [86b1], [86b2], [86b3]}

     The late 16^th c. map titled Insullae Moluc (Fig. 56) by the Flemish cartographer and co founder of the Dutch East India Company, Petrus Plancius, dated 1592 being one of the first maritime maps to implement Mercator projection,^[86c] and as such, one of the earliest nautical chart with reasonable accuracy of the entire South West Pacific region to include the majority of the principle islands in the Indonesian archipelago spanning as far east as the Salomonis (Solomon) Islands. The coral reefs and shoals of the noted Paracel region (upper left) of the South China Sea, just south (below) of Hainan Island being indicated on this early nautical map as partially submerged features and zone of maritime danger, rather than substantive land masses thus notable island groups. The width distorted Island of Palawan noted in red, labeled Calamianei, which at the time of the maps rendering understood by maritime European nations as being a declared dominion of Spain. Today the Calamiane Island group being part to the Philippine Republic, and the lesser island collection situated at the northern tip of much larger Island of Palawan.^[86d] The Mariana Island group (upper right center), to include the Island of Guam (Thief Islands) labeled Archipe Lagus S. Lazari.^[86e]

     ^[86e1]

     ^[86f]

     ^[86f3]

     The Insullae Moluc showing the lands surrounding the Pearl River delta (top left), today the region surrounding Hong Kong Island, Macau and Guangzhou (Canton)^[86g] and indicated with a yellow boarder, represented as a separate political region from the rest of China, at this time still the Ming Dynasty and marked with a green boarder. The Tonkin Gulf area of the South China Sea, today bordered by the nation of Vietnam,^[86h] being indicated on this 1592 map as an area outside of Chinese political control and labeled Hiu Nan Reg., in addition inclusive of the far eastern segment of the Himalayan Mountains.

     The first edition (ca. 1584) Yú dì shānhǎi quán tú 圖全海山地舆 or [left to right] 舆地山海全圖 (Yu Di Shan Hai Quan Tu) or Complete Map of Mountains and Sea Geography (Fig. 57a) and first Chinese world map to be coordinate based, in addition to rendering areas extensively beyond Hainan Dao 海南島 (Hainan Island) being produced by the visiting Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci. This map by Matteo Ricci, perhaps the first Chinese map to indicate the presence of sub arctic areas, extending from the Hēilóng jiāng 黑龍江^[xxx] (Heilong Jiang, Black Dragon River) or Amur River, near 52^o degrees north, showing Bolshoy Shantar with the Shantar Island group of the Uda Gulf in the Sea of Okhotsk along with portions of the Siberian coastline to possibly near 60 ^o degrees north to what is today Khabarovsk Krai, Russia and perhaps reaching the mouth of the Ulya River or further the Okhota River.^[xxx] The map not inclusive of the furthest north member of the Chinese centric "first island chain", Sakhalin Island and Kamchatka Peninsula. The distance between north eastern Asia and North America excessively brief, with the last significant inlet rendered on North America, near 48^o degrees probably representing the Strait of San Juan de Fuca.^[xxx]

     ^[87]

     ^[xxx]

     Irrespective of the coastal trade activity that had been occurring in the South China Seas, the water segments of the trade routes being littoral in nature and supported by the dearth of significant shipwrecks in the central regions of the South China Sea west of Palawan (Wade, 2003)^[93a] beyond a few vessels of non Chinese build and construction which may very well have steered off course, eventually loosing seaworthiness during stormy conditions and or striking a reef, that the Chinese prior to the Yudi Shanhai world map produced by Matteo Ricci, had not yet become aware that the southern islands composing the archipelagoes of Indonesian and Philippine Islands were indeed large and expansive islands and not simply small frontal islands such as those typically found along the Asian continental shelf and about the perimeter of China's eastern coastline with the Pacific Ocean. That from the time of the Da Ming Hun Yi Tu, China had not grasping the magnitude and scale of the large island masses of Sumatra, Java and Borneo. The Chinese per their cartography, perceiving these lands to be trivial in size, thus illustrated on Song - Ming Dynasty maps as being vastly smaller in scale relative to Hainan Island. The Chinese receiving secondary reports as the scale of these land masses through non quantified studies. Such fundamental lack of cartographical knowledge for the South China Sea region and vast array of large archipelagoes until the late Ming Dynasty with the sharing of maritime knowledge from arriving Europeans, supporting the position that China historical lacked awareness of the Australian continent.

     The ca. 1726 Dutch map produced by Francois Valentyn and premised upon information collected by voyages that took place from 1642-1644, known as Kaart der Reyae van Abel Tasman (Fig. 59b)^[93b] being one of the oldest known map that renders the west and north west coast of Australia, labeled Nova Hollandia, south coast of Tasmania labeled van Diemens Land, western New Zealand, labeled N. Zeeland and Staaten Land and the Solomon Islands. The western portion, northern and eastern coastline of the Island of Papua New Guinea, and labeled Nova Guinea thought at the time to be a component of Australia. Recent discoveries of Portuguese maritime documents, with a small rendering of a kangaroo like animal, offering competing evidence to suggest that the Portuguese may have discovered though not chart Australia, prior to Dutch efforts (xxxx, xxxx).^[94] The 1570 map by Abraham Ortelius titled Asiae Nova Descriptio (Asia, New Description) having a land mass labeled Terrae Incogtae Avstralis Pars (Part of Hidden Australia).

     ^[103]

     ^{[xxx]
     [93]}

     The growing understanding in Europe that China did not have political control of the South Pacific region to include all of the Spice Islands, from the Philippines, to the Straits of Malacca to the Celebes and Malacca Seas to include maritime regions further south such as the Austral pacific zone to encompassing New Zealand, only advancing and accelerating European colonization and trade for the area. The Europeans expediting the accumulation of knowledge for what they deemed terra nullius domains, for the purpose of securing control of the region from geographically non-aware Asian nations such as Siam, China and Japan.

     The (ca. 1598) map titled "Asia" by Zacharias Heyns (Fig. 60) and produced with additional information probably not available to Ricci while residing in China, having a less accurate rendering of the Korean Peninsula. The map rendering the greatly extended Korean Peninsula in a manner that suggest a merging with of Sakhalin Island and Kamchatka Peninsula, remaining void of any knowledge of Sakhalin as a single land mass. The beginning of convoluted renderings, those generated from the errant merging of the Korean Peninsula with Sakhalin Island and Kamchatka Peninsula or Sakhalin Island with just Kamchatka Peninsula commencing from near the 17^th century with maps such as "Atlantis Insula" by Nicholas Sanson (ca. 1670)(Fig. 61)^[95] being an example. Other mergers of land and island of a similar nature being the merging Hokkaido with the Asian continent as seen on the 1682 map by Giacomo Cantelli and Giovanni Giacomo de Rossi (Fig. 73) titled, Il regno della China detto presentemente Catay e Mangin diuiso sopra le carte piu esatte nelle sue principali prouincie (The Kingdom of China, presently called Cathay and Mangin, divided into its principal provinces on a most precise map), (Hong Kong University)^[96] and the 1752 map by D'Anville (Fig. 77) titled d'Asie la Chine Tartarie Borneo Philippines Japon map.^[96]

     It being hypothetically possible that such connecting land masses indicated on the various charts, which could be easily interpreted to be cartographic errors premised about simple lack of awareness, human error or location awareness limits associated with the style of navigation, were the coincidental, by chance product of temporary climate and resulting salinity variations in the region effecting water temperature, to include the Sea of Japan and Sea of Okhotsk^[xx] that persisted on a centennial time scale with the age of maritime discovery. Nautical travelers seeking passage through what is today the Tsugaru (Honshu and Hokkaido) and La Perouse (Hokkaido and Sakhalin Island) Straits^[xx] perhaps being seasonally impeded by large ice fields and or ice dams. The mountainous nature of these repeating if not multiyear ice formations and resulting non navigable domains, perhaps giving the visual perception to passing vessel captains that beneath the masking ice could be solid land. Hence the rendering of maritime areas known from the late 18^th century to be navigable waters that from the late 15^th century until the early to mid 17^th century were seasonally composed of expansive fields of sea ice, the accumulated ice restricting passage through the narrow divides, the maps rendering what was seen at the time of reporting.

     ^[xx]
     [96]

     ^[99]

     The regressive Chinese produced (ca. 1602) Shanhai Yudi Quantu 山海輿地全圖 (Complete Illustrated Geography of Mountains and Seas)(Fig. 63) map by Wong Qi 王圻 and Wang Siyi 王思義 printed in Sancai Tuhui 三才圖會 (Illustrated Collection of Three Powers) in 1607^[100] and more than likely inspired by the (ca. 1602) third edition of Matteo Ricci's Chinese World Map (Fig. 62) being generally non descript past Hainan Dao 海南島 (Hainan Island).

     ^[101]

     ^[104]

     The rendering of the "first island chain", and still void of any awareness to Sakhalin Island, having the remaining islands in the "first island chain" being drawn as non titled, simple circular representations with no shared indication of Chinese administrative claims. The map's acknowledging of various far reach maritime islands in the Taiping Yang 太平洋 (Pacific Ocean), and presumably representations of the Philippine and Indonesian Archipelago, in addition to being incorrectly placed and spatially represented, conspicuously void of labels, but more important, regions in maritime space that are beyond the domain of Chinese political administration.

     Some of the earliest European cartographic productions to give a fair representation as to the true location and content of the "first island chain" being the "Southeast Asia, China & India" map by Levinus Hulsius (ca. 1602)(Fig. 58),^[105] and Jodocus Hondius 1606 map titled "China" (Fig. 65).^[106] The Cluverius and Hulsius map indicating that only the islands immediately offshore from China as being the proper of China. In addition, both the Hulsius and Hondius nautically centric maps clearly indicate the diminutive Yaeyama Shoto 八重山諸島 (Yaeyama Islands), south east of the even smaller and appearing non indicated Senkaku Shoto 尖閣群島 (Senkaku Islands) as maritime domains beyond the political control of China.

     ^[107]

     ^[108b]

     A very important highlight feature present on both the Hondius and Hulsius maps, is the consistent rendering of the Paracel or Xisha (西沙)^[108c] region in the South China Sea as a collection of submerged reefs and marginal atolls as appose to being valid and permanent maritime land masses which can be seen to naturally and perpetually rise above maximum local storm surge tidal levels. A legitimate, non man made maritime land mass, being one which rises in vertical profile greater than the natural difference in tidal height along with seasonal changes in ocean surface elevation (Fig. 67), for all weather states, hence in possession of an "all conditions coastline". For that reason, the Paracel region being nautically represented minus the additional artistic element of perimeter shading to note the non presence of a perpetual costal tidal zone, and consistent marking method utilized on both maps to note the existence of "high seas" gonghai (公海),^[108d] and all legitimate islands and coastlines.

     The definition of an "island" and associated "economic zone" if any, per the Law of the Sea and UN Convention reading as follows: "a naturally formed area of land, surrounded by water, which is above water at high tide" ... "rocks which cannot sustain human habitation or economic life of their own shall have no exclusive economic zone."(xxxx, xxxx)^[108e]

     ^[xxx]

     The use of the term "high tide" being ambiguous or perhaps over simplified for regions near the China Seas and similar maritime areas. As a high tide in combination with a rise in local sea level brought on from a storm induced tidal surge^[108f] or season changes to ocean surface elevation can result in multi square miles, of what would otherwise be viewed as water circumference terrain, to be submerge in its entirety. It being for such scenario, that the collection of unique geological processes and signature morphology that results in the formation and identity of "level profile" shoals and atolls located in the mid latitude to equatorial regions of oceanic Earth^[108g], needing more stringent definition of island or separate geopolitical classification. The many atolls and shoals of the China Seas being a collection of maritime masses that during some conditions, would not normally be consider an "island" or more discerningly, a "perpetual terrain projection that has an encompassing tidal zone during all weather conditions and sea states". The term "sustain human habitation" or "economic life" needed further refinement to perhaps include the human count and degree to which one includes artificially created and or produced human sustenance of a recurring nature. Thus a large elevated structure or platform, one that uses a series of stilts and or pilings protruding above a small atoll, collection of atolls or minuscule masses of "just above the surface of the water" terrain and or other human made ingenuities of an aboding nature such as sea floor embedded, concrete formations, though sufficient enough to meet the criteria of "sustain human habitation" or "economic life" do not get automatically recognized or given the status of "island".

      ^{[108g1] [108g2]}

      ^{[108g13] [108g14]}

     The few Chinese fishermen that did perish on some of the inner islands and shoals of the pirated South China Seas, to include the Parcel Islands being most likely accidental arrivals, their craft damaged and marooned. There being no records in Chinese history of fisherman prior to the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) being able to define or aware of the exact or approximate bearings and or distances to any South China Sea islands much beyond Hainan. In addition, the typical fisherman like a visitor or tourist, is not a dutiful representative of a nation's government, and as such, not empowered to claim or annex territory along the sovereign level.

     ^[108g15]

     ^[108g28]

     That due to the extreme, rough nature of the East and South China Sea region (Western Pacific), an infamously area that is known and referred to by US Navy sailors as "Typhoon Alley" the region depicted in the movie "Mutiny on the Cain", with frequent high sea conditions (sea states >5) and today understood to be some of the most severe and violent in the world along with vessel design limitations, that the majority of the East and South China Seas were most likely and explicitly avoided by Chinese vessels and for its entire expanse. Excursion into this maritime region performed by large sampans, these wooded vessels during the Ming Dynasty under the helm of Admiral Zheng He said to be as large as 44 zhang 4 chi (~120 m - 125 m, ~394' - 410' ft) long and 18 zhang (~50 m, ~164' ft) wide with a mass of 3,000 DWT (Levathes 1994, Fang and Li 2005),^{[108h], [108h1]} mostly likely becoming fractured and ripped apart in high seas. The hulls of these barge like craft fully contorting from the tall waves, the hull seams expanding and contracting, the massive wave forces impacting the vessel's weatherdeck resulting in vessel failure and loss of crew. Such vessels, had they been used for trade to the Philippines and regions near Borneo, needing to remain within close proximity to shore or protected harbor, traveling strictly within littoral waters with reduced sea state conditions.

     The most violent, high sea and typhoon conditions I've experienced and with little doubt in my mind certainly not the worst the oceans have to offer, myself helm and after steering qualified for a 3,400 DWT, 415' ft US Navy warship, occurring while transiting the East-South China Sea in route to the Philippines from Korea as part of the USS Kitty Hawk CV 63 carrier task force. So strong was the typhoon in the East-South China Sea area, the 415' vessel making 18 - 20 knots, resulting in 42^o - 43^o degree port to starboard rolls from centerline, per the bubble inclinometer on the bridge. The ship pitching no less than 17^o - 20^o degrees bow to stern. The rolling seas, crest to trough being in excess of 50' - 60' ft (15.2 m - 18.3 m) with a few waves being perhaps 70' - 80' ft (21.3 m - 24.4 m) in height, estimating the sea state condition for that very unnerving 5 - 6 hrs to be a constant [8*] and for brief periods [9*] or greater (*per proposed sea state scale, McGraw, 2012).[108h1] Speculating that given such rough sea state condition and not unusual for the China Sea, resulting in a large, wood junk like vessel such as that proposed as having accompanying Admiral Zheng He, fragmenting in less than an hour from such violent exposure. The hulls of these multi ton sampans literally disintegrating from the forces of the waves tossed them about, eventually forming a debris field and loss of life.

     The harrowing transit through the China Seas being the only time while I was a member of the crew that all personnel were restricted, regardless of don foul weather gear, from being exterior the vessel while underway, all ship's work to include meal (mess deck) services cancelled for the day, all personnel not on watch ordered to remain in their racks. I nearly killed, narrowly escaping from the Weapon's Division office while working on the ASROC security log by a large metal desk that broke free, sheering off the steel mounting bolts, violently slamming the heavy desk and myself against the bulkheads.

     Recent oceanographic studies of surface and subsurface (internal) ocean wave formations in the area of the South China Sea known generally as the Luzon Strait (Lien, and Henyey, 2010; Mercier, 2013; Peacock, 2013), this expansive area bounded by the island of Taiwan, to the north east and island of Luzon, Philippines to the south east, covering approximately 55,000 square miles (~142,450 sq km) and performed by the University of Washington, ONR, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Ecole Centrale de Lyon, University of Grenoble Alpes and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in conjunction with satellite imagery of the region collected from the NASA MODIS Satellite (Fig. 74), have concluded this body of water to contain some of the largest waves of all Earth's oceans.^{[37], [38], [39]} The wave energy levels being so great in scale, resulting in morphological formations on the surface of the ocean so large in magnitude and amplitude, that their individual wave structure shape in addition to the direction of propagating motion being visible from low earth orbit (LEO) (NASA, and Global Ocean Associates 2013).^[108i]

      ^{[108i1]  [108j]
     [xxx]}

     The internal, subsurface waves formations estimated from various studies and clearly animated in video (Vid. 2) by the team at MIT (2013), to be in excess of 550' feet (170 m) in height (Mercier, 2013; Peacock, 2013).^[108k5] The production of subsurface turbulent structures in the ocean water being a direct result of shallow sea mounts and ocean ridges in the central region of the Luzon Strait (xxxx, xxxx).^[108k6] In a simple analogous manner, these large magnitude wave formations and non laminar movements, being turbulent and concentrated much like the formation of orographic cloud formations visible in the atmosphere as a result of protruding surface formations (e.g. mountains)(xxxx, xxxx).^[108k7] These very large internal ocean waves, though possessing different wavelength, frequently superpositioning in energy with the morphology of the over burdening surface waves, resulting in extraordinary surface wave heights and energy levels (Lien, and Henyey, 2010; Mercier, 2013; Peacock, 2013).^{[108l], [108m]}

     Returning to the topic of regional cartography, the 1785 Edo Jidai 江戸時代 (Edo Period)(1603-1868) Japan, Dai Shin Koyozu 大清広輿図 (Enlarged Illustration of the Great Qing) map (Fig. 75) and an evolution of Yushu Jingtian Hedi Zhi Tu (Map of China with Latitude and Longitude and Scale) by Zhang Youyi 章有義 in Tianjing Huowen 天星回問 (Question and Answers on Astronomy) publish in China (ca. 1672) later reproduced in Japan (1730)^[108m1] being non inclusive of Taiwan 臺灣 (Formosa) or noting any archipelago and or maritime realm beyond Hainan Dao 海南島 (Hainan Island) as being part of China's sovereign domain.

     ^[108m2]

     ^[104]

     The "relinquishing" of Sakhalin Island to Russia, occurring at the Convention of Peking and signed 18 October 1860 and act which also ratified the Treaty of Tienstin (1858), remaining suspect in terms of legitimate Chinese control and administration. For the nature of the occupants, to the historical non cartographic integration of the territory, Sakhalin remaining non recognized on all but the most contemporaneous official Qing Cháo 清朝 (Qing Dynasty) maps, to having not ever showing from historical writings to be within and or part of the continuous Chinese political domain, thus highly suspect in terms of actually having "title".

     The 1787 map (Fig. 78a) titled "Chart of Discovery, In the Seas of China and Tartary between Manilla and Avatcha by the Boufsole and Astrolabe" printed in 1798 by GG & J. Robinson of London and including of data provide from the voyage taken by the French explorer Lapérouse being one of the first maps to chart the eastern shoreline of Kamchatka Peninsula, the Channel of Tartary (Strait) and the complete perimeter of Sakhalin Island. Thus by the late 18^th century as seen from the D'Anville 1794 map (Fig. 78b) have a firm understanding as to location and spatial geography for both the island of Sakhalin and entire Kamchatka Peninsula to the Bering Strait.^[xxx]

      ^{[xxx]  [104a]}

     ^{[xxx] [104d]}

     The 1818 map titled Asia produced by Pinkerton (Library of Congress)(Fig. 79) and the 1837 map titled Carte L'Empire Chinois et du Japon (Fig. 80) having continuity in that both of these maps have the understanding that maritime regions off the coast of China to include the majority of the islands were not under the political control of China. The 1818 Pinkerton map indicating the shoals of the South China Seas as regions that were not under the administration of China. This map showing the location of the Pracels (Paracel) Islands along with many of the shoals from Scarborough Shoal to the west of Luzon Island on down to Coral Flats and Sand ground Blind Kleppen west of Borneo. The 1836 produce, 1837 printed French map Carte L'Empire Chinois et du Japon indicating the islands of the Ryukyu archipelago with Japanese, not Chinese names.

     ^[104e]

     ^[104h]

     The entire "transaction" and political gains achieved in by Prince Kung 恭親王 (Yixin) signing of the 1860 Treaty of Peking, ceding coastland lands north of Vladivostok to the mouth of the Amur river along the Pacific Ocean coast to include the Strait of Tartary or Dádá hǎixiá 韃靼海峽^[xxx] or Mamiya kaikyō 間宮海峡^[xxx] (xxxx, xxxx),^[xxx] independent of the prior 1689 Treaty of Nerchinsk which defined per the limited contemporaneous cartographic resources available, China's northern frontier boundary with Russia (xxxx, xxxx),^[xxx] relative to Sakhalin Island and still yet to be mapped by China for political purposes, peculiarly more reminiscent of an opportunistic act of deception performed by China. The end results being China receiving misplaced benefit for yielding lands for which China never demonstrated with much clarity as to having ever been in Chinese control, nonetheless having competent indigenous knowledge of the Sakhalin Island coast, and supporting indication as to having definable political claims upon a geographic region.

     The ca. 1814 Qing Dynasty map titled "China" by John Thomson of Edinburgh^[xxx] along with the ca. 1897 map of Qing Cháo 清朝 (Qing Dynasty) by Reverend Thomas Milner in his book "Gallery of Geography" titled "Eighteen Provinces, China Proper" (Fig. 83b) being non inclusive of Formosa (Taiwan) or any other archipelagoes and or maritime realm beyond Hainan Dao 海南島 (Hainan Island) as being part of China's sovereign domain.

     The 1899 edition of the Huangyu Quantu 皇輿全圖 (Complete Map of the Empire) map printed in Qinding Da Qing huidian tushili 欽定大清會典圖事例 (Imperial Commission, Collected Statures of the Great Qing), spanning from 47^o degrees east to 47^o degrees west of Beijing and from 18^o degrees north to 61^o degrees north,^[112] being completely dismissive or give any indication as to a valid claim for any maritime space south of Hainan Dao 海南島 (Hainan Island). This being one of the first high precision grid based conical projection map to be inclusive of maritime regions to be produced in China.^[113] The Huangyu Quantu 皇輿全圖 (Complete Map of the Empire) map not making any Chinese administrative claims to islands in the East China Sea other than Penghu Qundao 澎湖群島 (Penghu Archipelago / Pescadores) and Taiwan 臺灣 (Formosa).

     ^[108n]

     ^[108o]

      ^{[xxx] [110]}

... text needed ... ^[110a]

     ^[110b]

     ^[110e]

.... there being a consistent theme between the four early 20th century maps (Figs. 84-87) that being the Island of Taiwan and regions beyond into the China Seas were not considered by the nation of China to be areas under China authority. Th. ^[110f]

     ^[110g]

     ^[110m]

     From the perspective of social and personal development, it would be unreasonable to believe that those that helped to form the leadership of China, from the period post World War II onward, did so in a vacuum void of the presence of western oriented news and entertainment in the form of both audio and video. The influences from such US and European newsreels and movies related to military engagement between the allies and the Unites States upon Japanese's controlled territory in Indo China and the China Seas permeating the entire world post WWII, the exposure to such most certainly reaching those seated in authority in China today. Hence an absurdity for the political leadership in China from the end of the Qing Dynasty with the abdicating of the Xuāntǒng dì 宣统帝 (Xuantong Emperor)^[110n] or Pǔyí 溥儀 (Puyi)^[110o] in 1912 following the formation of the Zhōnghuá mínguó 中華民國 (Republic of China, ROC) in 1911^[110p] and post the formation of the Zhōngguó guómíndǎng 中國國民黨 (Kuomintang of China, KMT)^[110q] and eventual relocation of the Republic of China to the Island of Taiwan in 1949, in addition to the then contemporaneous creation of the Zhōngguó gòngchǎndǎng 中国共产党 (Communist Party of China, CPC)^[110r] resulting in the formation of the Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó 中华人民共和国 (Peoples Republic of China, PRC)^[110s] to attempt to impose upon the world and in particular the United States of America and WWII allies to include the rest of the nations of Indo China that the military engagements exercised in the Western Pacific region, resulting in the lost of many 100's of thousands of military and civilian lives^[110t] was callously conducted for the sole benefit of China. Such that a few years post, China could arbitrarily and void of historical context of much relevance, annex without legal authority or jurisdiction, the majority of the maritime region composing the China Sea, from which and in a medieval manner, assert sovereign level control of the region to include hostile aggression. The sighting of events during World War II being very detailed and descript, as can be seen from various ca. 1944-1945 Universal Newsreels (Vids. 3-6) that present the events as they occurred, having for the first time in human history recorded major military campaigns using both audio and video medium.

     The mid 20^th century map of China ca. 1963 (Library of Congress, 1963),^[113h1] titled Zhōnghuá rénmín gònghéguó dà dìtú 圖地大國和共民人華中 or [right to left] 中華人民共和國大地圖^[113h2] (Zhong Hua Ren Min Gong He Guo Da Di Tu)(Fig. 88) showing China's unilateral annexation of the South China Sea (Fig. 89). China's expansion into the maritime regions of the South China Seas, per the various maps produced for the past 800 years prior, regardless of origin be it Chinese, European or the United States of America, from the perspective of China's long recorded history, unprecedented action.

     ^[113h3]

     ^[113h6]

     ^{[xxx] [xxx]}

     The arbitrary and opportunistic nature of such maritime claim to the South China Sea and reminiscent of a "take it now before someone else does" mindset for which similar in nature to the undisciplined mindset leading to the callous and rapid extinction of ivory yielding wildlife to the indiscriminate decimating of the shark population for the narrow desire to consume just the fins, if not immoral acts, the generally unethical Chinese population (amoral if not soulless nation void of systems for instilling virtuous behavior) in the world being the largest consumers of such repugnant harvesting and equally similar in the expressed undisciplined desire to consume maritime space, the Arctic and Antarctic oceans being China's nest destination, similar in mindset expressed by earlier Japanese efforts to consume the South China Sea prior to the initiating of WWII with the United States of America. China's frivolous claims to the China Sea region, no less qualified than if any one of China's neighbors nations were to reciprocate in kind by unilaterally extending each of their respective nation's claims to within a similar distance to the Chinese coastline, disregarding any understood domain held by the nation of China.

     In conclusion, not reasonable from Chinese vessel hull design to the typical means of navigation prior to the Ming Dynasty, along with the complete lack of Chinese maritime maps that render the perimeter islands of the South China seas such as the Philippines and Indonesia, in particular the non facing sides of the islands, none the less render in full more central islands such as Palawan, to not having historical writings that support a general awareness and knowledge by China's rulers as to the range of human inhabitants, their collective technology to include the typical means of communication and lifestyle in the region, to presume or deduce that the Chinese had creditable first hand maritime knowledge of the South China Seas sufficient to define the region prior to modern times, nor have the capacity to describe the local inhabitants or assert any political control.

     The unprecedented projection of forward military activity in far reaching maritime regions of the east and south China Seas (Fig. 93) being a uniquely 20^th century pursuit by the Chinese and series of extravert acts that are without precedence relative to the historical administration of distant areas by China. Such that today, the Chinese are actively altering the character of the reefs in the Spratly, for example Gaven Reef, resulting in artificial islands with fortified concrete structures (Hardy, O'Connor, and IHS Jane's Defence Weekly, 2014)^[114] for the purpose of projecting military power, control and surveillance (Fig. 94). The nation of China demonstrating a remarkable level of insular indifference to events extraterritorial to the nation and world during the past 125 years to ever comprehend unilateral annexation in particular, China's maritime expansion and desire to control the China Seas as justifiable

     ^{[115] [116]}

     ^[118]

     China's desire to annex the China Seas including acts of force by the nation's commercial fishing fleet. This collection of small craft being formalized in terms of synergistic capacity into a maritime force that at the immediate authority of PLAN (People's Liberation Army Navy), can be instrumented as a "maritime militias" (CIMSEC, 2016).^[118a] Such having been witness by a Korean helicopter crew while flying over international waters on 16 Nov 2011 (Fig. 95) with 10 vessels aligned and abreast, the hulls in contact and flush, exercising a blockade maneuver.

     ^[118b]

     As for other historical territorial disputes, China's entanglement with Tibet and over 700 years old,^[119] speaking volumes. The attempted Yuen Cháo 元朝 (Yuen Dynasty)(1280-1368)^[120] naval invasion of Kamakura Jidai 鎌倉時代 (Kamakura Period)(1185-1333)^[121] Japan, with the Goryeo Empire 高麗帝國 (918-1392)^[122] Koreans being enlisted to build the Chinese fleet,^[123] having festered for nearly 1,500 years from the time of the Qin Cháo 秦朝 (Qin Dynasty) emperor Shi Huangdi 始皇帝 (259-210 BCE).^[124]

     The writings in Sun Tzu 孫武 (Sunzi)^[125] along with the Chinese glorifying of such practices, in particular the ill repute act of "perfecting deceit" combined with "lying in waiting"^[126] being all the warning and red flag a conscientiously lead nation needs to remain vigilant of Chinese foreign policy and geographical desires. In the end and what matter, the leadership of China and ultimately its citizens are exercising foreign policy behavior towards other nations in a manner that it would not wish upon itself. The Chinese disregarding the fact that it was the 1^st American Volunteer Group (AVG) of the Chinese Air Force and known as the Flying Tigers that from 1941–1942 defended Kūnmíng 昆明 (Kunming) China from Japanese forces.^[xxx] The nation of China, historically and present, not ever defending the United States of America nor our territories from assault by our enemies nor directly coming to the defense of nations not bordering China.

     The general course of direction per Mr. Xi Jinping himself, appearing to be heading towards military engagement with the United States of America as Mr. Xi and individual that while a youth refused to serve active duty in China's military, being seen on 21 Apr 2016 (Fig. 96) and day in which he appointed himself Commander in Chief of the military's Joint Operations Command Center, dressed in military uniform (BBC, 2016).^[127] His attire stating and significant, that China's "Commander in Chief" is not just a civilian position during non war periods, but a military leadership role during peaceful times. Thus Mr. Xi Jinping himself should be considered hierarchically by others as a "military combatant" first, followed by civilian leader. The projecting of military powers superior to those wielded by civilian leadership being an element of disheartening concern by western nations (Thomas Jefferson, 1775) and practice that is still emplace in China.

     ^[128]

     ^[131]

     China's belligerent nature and direct expression of the leader Xi Jinping, being solidified during a "non innocent" concert held at the Great Hall of the People in Beijing on 02 May 2016 (Japan Times, 2016)^[132] (Fig. 97), in which a pseudo "Declaration of War" upon the United States of America and "implied imminent combatant enemy" with the clearly expressed line "Whole world should unite to defeat the American invaders and their lackeys" (South China Morning Post, 2016).^[133] Considerations for our nation to exercise, the immediate removal of Mr. Xi's and all Central Party Committee family members from the United States of America along with the cancelling of military training cooperation with China. New trade deals between our two nations needing to be immediately stopped and reexamined, all semiconductor, optics, aircraft, auto, to include household consumer goods trade and other business partnerships with China for the sake of national security perhaps temporarily creased until reapproved, all tourist, student and H1B visas cancelled until further approval, all US dollar currency transactions in excess of $10,000 dollars to Yuan requiring specific approval, given the stated threat of military action against the United States of America.

     From the implementing of the above historical accounts and documents, spanning some 1,000 years and more, one must conclude that China's claim to the entire East and South China Sea region are unqualified, China's geographical claims relative to political control and the boundaries of sovereign proper, remaining invalid per the nation's own records and observed interaction upon the world by other nations, quod erat demonstrandum.

     In closing and in fairness, the United States of America having similar, but categorically different, yet no less profound, perversions towards reality and truth. Clearly visible in the marginal mass of non objective, mob mentality, citizens wishing to believe Mr. Obama's non truthful Hawai`ian nativity claim. As a former member of the US Navy, ~20 year resident of Hawai'i, former Security Alarm Tech (contractor) for the Records Department at Kapi`Olani Hospital in Honolulu Hawai`i and American Patriot, one rooted in Constitutional principles, regrettably state out of mutual respect, for nations to avoid negotiation with the current White House administration, one which I believe is predicated upon fraudulent identity.

A PDF copy of this discussion is available here.